Association of Whole Grain Consumption with Nutrient Intakes and Metabolic Risk Factors in Generally Healthy Korean Middle-Aged Women

Article information

Korean J Community Nutr. 2014;19(2):176-186

Publication date (electronic) : 2014 January 20

doi : https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.2.176

Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea

^†Corresponding author Seungmin Lee Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women's University, Dobongro76ga-gil, Kangbuk-gu, Seoul 142-732, Korea Tel: (02) 920-7671 Fax: (02) 920-2076 E-mail: smlee@sungshin.ac.kr

Received 2014 February 05; Revised 2014 March 18; Accepted 2014 March 18.

Abstract

Objectives

Epidemiological studies have suggested that a higher consumption of whole grain foods can significantly reduce the risk of chronic diseases including cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes and obesity. The objective of the current study was to examine associations among the consumption of whole grains and nutrient intakes and biochemical indicators associated with chronic diseases among generally healthy middle-aged Korean women.

Methods

Using 24-hour recall data from the 2008–2009 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, whole grain intake (g/day) was calculated for a total of generally healthy 1,953 subjects. The subjects were divided into three groups by the level of whole grain consumption (0 g/day, > 0 and < 20 g/day or ≥ 20 g/day). Mean values or proportions of various nutrient intakes and metabolic risk factors were compared according to the level of whole grain consumption. All statistical analysis was conducted using SAS software version 9.2.

Results

We observed that the overall consumption of whole grains was quite low. Specifically, 58.2% of subjects reported no whole grain consumption on the day of the survey, and the mean whole grain intake was only 15.3 g/day. The whole grain consumption was positively associated with intakes of various macro and micronutrients, namely, plant proteins and fats, dietary fiber, calcium, plant iron, potassium, zinc, vitamin A, β-carotene, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆ and folic acid. In addition, we found significantly decreasing trends in abdominal obesity and hypertriglyceridemia as whole grain intake levels increase.

Conclusions

The study findings suggested the importance of promoting whole grain consumption as an efficient tool for improving various dietary aspects and preventing chronic diseases.

Keywords: Whole grain; Nutrient intake; Metabolic risk factor

Table 1.

General characteristics of the study subjects

Table 2.

Age-adjusted mean daily nutrient intakes according to the level of whole grain consumption

Table 3.

Mean daily nutrient density according to the level of whole grain consumption

Table 4.

Mean % Dietary Reference Intakes according to the level of whole grain consumption

Table 5.

Subjects meeting Dietary Reference Intakes according to the level of whole grain consumption

Table 6.

Multivariate-adjusted¹⁾ mean biochemical & anthropometric parameters according to the level of whole grain consumption

Table 7.

Multivariate-adjusted¹⁾ proportions of metabolic risks according to the level of whole grain consumption

References

Anderson JW. 2003;Whole grains protect against atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Proc Nutr Soc 62(1):135–142.

Cleveland LE, Moshfegh AJ, Albertson AM, Goldman JD 2000. ): Dietary intake of whole grains. Am J Coll Nutr 19 (3 Suppl): 331S–338S.

de Munter JSL, Hu FB, Spiegelman D, Franz M, Dam RM. 2007;Whole grain, bran, and germ intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study and systematic review. PLoS Med 4(8):e261.

Esmaillzadeh A, Mirmiran P, Azizi F. 2005;Whole-grain consumption and the metabolic syndrome: a favorable association in Tehranian adults. Eur J Clin Nutr 59(3):353–362.

Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. 2002;Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. Am J Clin Nutr 76(3):535–540.

Haas P, Machado MJ, Anton AA, Silva AS, De Francisco A. 2009;Effectiveness of whole grain consumption in the prevention of colorectal cancer: Meta-analysis of cohort studies. Int J Food Sci Nutr 21:1–13.

Hagiwara H, Seki T, Ariga T. 2004;The effect of pre-germinated brown rice intake on blood glucose and PAI-1 levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 68(2):444–447.

He M, van Dam RM, Rimm E, Hu FB, Qi L. 2010;Whole-grain, cereal fiber, bran, and germ intake and the risks of all-cause and cardiovascular disease-specific mortality among women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation 121(20):2162–2168.

Jacobs DRJ, Marquart L, Slavin J, Kushi LH. 1998;Whole grain intake and cancer: an expanded review and meta analysis. Nutr Cancer 30(2):85–96.

Jensen MK, Koh-Banerjee P, Franz M, Sampson L, Gr⊘nbæk M, Rimm EB. 2006;Whole grains, bran, and germ in relation to homocysteine and markers of glycemic control, lipids, and inflammation. Am J Clin Nutr 83(2):275–283.

Jones JM, PhD , Reicks M, Adams J, Fulcher G, PhD , Weaver G, Kanter M, Marquart L. 2002;The Importance of promoting a whole grain foods message. J Am Coll Nutr 21(4):293–297.

Jonnalagadda SS, Harnack L, Liu RH, McKeown N, Seal C, Liu S, Fahey GC. 2010;Putting the whole grain puzzle together: health benefits associated with whole grains-Summary of American Society for Nutrition 2010 satellite symposium. J Nutr 141(. (5)): :1011S–1022S.

Larsson SC, Giovannucci E, Bergkvist L, Wolk A. 2005;Whole grain consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a population-based cohort of 60,000 women. Br J Cancer 92(9):1803–1807.

Lee SM. 2011;Association of whole grain consumption with sociodemographic and eating behavior factors in a Korean population: based on 2007–2008 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Korean J Community Nutr 16(3):353–363.

Mellen PB, Walsh TF, Herrington DM. 2008;Whole grain intake and cardiovascular disease: a metaanalysis. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 18(4):283–90.

Montonen J, Knekt P, Jrvinen R, Aromaa A, Reunanen A. 2003;Whole-grain and fiber intake and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 77(3):622–629.

Article information Continued

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Table 1.

General characteristics of the study subjects

Variables		N (%)
Age(years)	40 − 49	1,026 (52.5)
	50 − 59	674 (34.5)
	60 − 65	253 (13.0)
Education	Primary school graduate	496 (25.9)
	Middle school graduate	367 (19.2)
	High school graduate	714 (37.3)
	College graduate	336 (17.6)
Household income	Bottom	255 (13.3)
	Bottom middle	467 (24.3)
	Middle top	563 (29.3)
	Top	365 (19.0)
Marriage status	Living with a partner	1,645 (84.2)
Marriage status	Not living with a partner	308 (15.8)
Smoking	None	1,787 (93.3)
	Past	51 (92.7)
	Current	78 (94.1)
Drinking	None	662 (34.6)
	1 − 4 time/month	1,079 (56.3)
	2 − 4 time/week	174 (99.1)
Moderate physical activity	0 − 1 times/week	1,162 (60.7)
	2 − 4 times/week	377 (19.7)
	5 − 7 times/week	376 (19.6)

Table 2.

Age-adjusted mean daily nutrient intakes according to the level of whole grain consumption

Variables	Whole grain intake level (g/day)			F	p
Variables	0 (n = 1,137)	> 0 & < 20 (n = 531)	≥ 20 (n = 285)	F	p
Energy (Kcal/day)	1,618.95 ± 922.42¹⁾	1,586.13 ± 930.21	1,709.34 ± 943.68	2.58	< 0.077
Protein (g/day)	1, 59.37 ± 991.19^a	1, 60.38 ± 991.59^ab	1, 66.09 ± 992.22^b	3.71	< 0.025∗
Plant protein (g/day)	1, 36.57 ± 990.74^a	1, 37.36 ± 991.10^a	1, 44.61 ± 991.78^b	8.85	< 0.001∗∗∗
Animal protein (g/day)	1, 22.79 ± 990.91	1, 23.02 ± 990.98	1, 21.48 ± 991.26	0.48	< 0.620
Carbohydrate (g/day)	1,273.96 ± 993.82^a	1,264.14 ± 995.21^a	1,293.08 ± 997.54^b	4.91	< 0.008∗∗
Lipid (g/day)	1, 30.36 ± 990.91	1, 31.48 ± 991.06	1, 32.15 ± 991.68	0.56	< 0.571
Plant lipid (g/day)	1, 15.81 ± 990.42^a	1, 17.65 ± 990.61^b	1, 17.96 ± 990.78^b	4.68	< 0.010∗
Animal lipid (g/day)	1, 14.55 ± 990.75	1, 13.83 ± 990.70	1, 14.19 ± 991.31	0.23	< 0.794
SFA (g/day)	1, 8 4.99 ± 990.32	1, 8 5.04 ± 990.28	1, 8 5.11 ± 990.54	0.02	< 0.982
PUFA (g/day)	1, 8 4.32 ± 990.16	1, 8 4.76 ± 990.24	1, 8 4.18 ± 990.29	1.45	< 0.237
MUFA (g/day)	1, 8 5.57 ± 990.33	1, 8 5.71 ± 990.29	1, 8 5.76 ±99 0.61	0.06	< 0.940
Fiber (g/day)	1, 21.89 ± 990.70^a	1, 22.11 ± 990.68^a	1, 27.60 ± 991.05^b	13.48	< 0.001∗∗∗
Calcium (mg/day)	1,490.07 ± 912.79^a	1,496.86 ± 914.67^a	1,560.37 ± 923.84^b	3.47	< 0.032∗
Plant Calcium (mg/day)	1,322.45 ± 998.57^a	1,329.55 ± 910.23^a	1,382.15 ± 919.48^b	3.96	< 0.020∗
Animal Calcium (mg/day)	1,167.62 ± 998.54	1,167.32 ± 999.35	1,178.22 ± 915.12	0.20	< 0.818
Iron (mg/day)	1, 13.87 ± 990.41^a	1, 13.55 ± 990.35^a	1, 17.01 ± 990.68^b	12.20	< 0.001∗∗∗
Plant Iron (mg/day)	1, 11.53 ± 990.38^a	1, 11.23 ± 990.32^a	1, 14.82 ± 990.64^b	15.32	< 0.001∗∗∗
Animal Iron (mg/day)	1, 8 2.35 ± 990.11	1, 8 2.32 ± 990.11	1, 8 2.19 ± 990.15	0.34	< 0.710
Phosphorus (mg/day)	1,861.02 ± 916.11^a	1,892.90 ± 919.41^a	1,043.14 ± 927.23^b	16.56	< 0.001∗∗∗
Sodium (mg/day)	4,034.96 ± 146.17	3,902.68 ± 104.86	3,856.83 ± 171.93	0.44	< 0.647
Potassium (mg/day)	2,712.24 ± 963.57^a	2,854.07 ± 985.21^a	3,327.88 ± 136.06^b	8.86	< 0.001∗∗∗
Zinc (mg/day)	1, 8 8.04 ± 990.19^a	1, 8 7.95 ± 990.23^a	1, 8 8.98 ± 990.33^b	4.54	< 0.011∗
Vitamin A (µgRE/day)	1,673.89 ± 921.20^a	1,677.60 ± 928.18^a	1,830.68 ± 952.18^b	4.24	< 0.015∗
Retinol (µg/day)	1, 72.11 ± 995.34	18,60.88 ± 994.04	1, 70.08 ± 996.76	1.85	< 0.160
β-carotene (µg/day)	3,529.53 ± 173.29^a	4,119.63 ± 552.76^ab	4,563.64 ± 398.14^b	3.21	< 0.042∗
Thiamine (mg/day)	1, 8 1.03 ± 990.03^a	1, 8 1.01 ± 990.02^a	1, 8 1.18 ± 990.04^b	6.28	< 0.002∗∗
Riboflavin (mg/day)	1, 8 0.97 ± 990.03^a	1, 8 0.95 ± 990.03^a	1, 8 1.10 ± 990.06^ab	3.10	< 0.046∗
Vitamin B₆ (mg/day)	1, 8 1.85 ± 990.05^a	1, 8 1.88 ± 990.05^a	1, 8 2.06 ± 990.06^b	3.83	< 0.023∗
Niacin (mg/day)	1, 14.75 ± 990.32^a	1, 15.26 ± 990.46^a	1, 17.47 ± 990.69^b	7.07	< 0.001∗∗∗
Vitamin C (mg/day)	1,112.37 ± 994.35	1,118.88 ± 995.47	1,130.21 ± 997.03	2.39	< 0.093
Folic acid (µg/day)	1,235.94 ± 995.91^a	1,258.53 ± 999.14^ab	1,285.22 ± 911.20^b	7.88	< 0.001∗∗∗
Vitamin E (mg/dayay)	1, 12.10 ± 990.99	1, 11.59 ± 990.54	1, 16.15 ± 992.26	1.93	< 0.147

¹⁾

Mean ± SE

ab: Different letters within a category represent statistical differences by whole grain intakes from Tukey-Kramer's multiple comparison test

^∗

: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001

Table 3.

Mean daily nutrient density according to the level of whole grain consumption

Variables	Whole grain intake level (g/day)			F	p
Variables	0	> 0 & < 20	≥ 20	F	p
Protein (g/1000 kcal)	16,36.38 ± 90.40¹⁾	16,38.61 ± 990.81	16,38.53 ± 990.80	5.35	< 0.052
Plant protein (g/1000 kcal)	16,22.59 ± 90.30^a	16,24.01 ± 990.68^ab	16,25.69 ± 990.71^b	9.24	< 0.001∗∗∗
Animal protein (g/1000 kcal)	16,13.79 ± 90.46	16,14.60 ± 990.53	16,12.84 ± 990.66	2.08	< 0.127
Carbohydrate (g/1000 kcal)	1,170.90 ± 91.23^a	1,167.47 ± 991.32^a	1,172.36 ± 991.83^ab	3.11	< 0.046∗
Lipid (g/1000 kcal)	16,18.27 ± 90.38	16,19.42 ± 990.41	16,18.43 ± 990.61	2.32	< 0.099
Plant lipid (g/1000 kcal)	168,9.71 ± 90.21^a	16,10.96 ± 990.28^b	16,10.39 ± 990.31^b	7.06	< 0.001∗∗∗
Animal lipid (g/1000 kcal)	168,8.55 ± 90.35	168,8.45 ± 990.31	168,8.04 ± 990.54	0.30	< 0.739
SFA (g/1000 kcal)	168,2.87 ± 90.14	168,3.01 ± 990.13	168,2.85 ± 990.21	0.36	< 0.695
PUFA (g/1000 kcal)	168,2.55 ± 90.07^a	168,2.87 ± 990.11^b	168,2.38 ± 990.13^a	4.13	< 0.017∗
MUFA (g/1000 kcal)	168,3.21 ± 90.14	168,3.43 ± 990.14	168,3.17 ± 990.24	0.79	< 0.453
Fiber (g/1000 kcal)	16,13.50 ± 90.25^a	16,14.25 ± 990.29^a	16,16.17 ± 990.44^b	14.51	< 0.001∗∗∗
Calcium (mg/1000 kcal)	1,303.21 ± 96.10	1,319.23 ± 998.05	1,329.22 ± 910.63	2.71	< 0.068
Plant Calcium (mg/1000 kcal)	1,200.58 ± 93.99^a	1,213.33 ± 995.79^ab	1,221.25 ± 997.49^b	3.96	< 0.020∗
Animal Calcium (mg/1000 kcal)	1,102.62 ± 94.78	1,105.89 ± 995.38	1,107.97 ± 998.87	0.19	< 0.827
Iron (mg/1000 kcal)	168,8.47 ± 90.17^a	168,8.75 ± 990.22^a	168,9.79 ± 990.28^b	7.81	< 0.001∗
Plant Iron (mg/1000 kcal)	168,7.01 ± 90.16^a	168,7.25 ± 990.20^a	168,8.48 ± 990.27^b	10.97	< 0.001∗∗∗
Animal Iron (mg/1000 kcal)	168,1.46 ± 90.07	168,1.50 ± 990.06	168,1.31 ± 990.09	1.41	< 0.245
Phosphorus (mg/1000 kcal)	1,531.26 ± 95.47^a	1,571.17 ± 997.31^b	1,621.00 ± 910.30^c	34.85	< 0.001∗∗∗
Sodium (mg/1000 kcal)	2,581.69 ± 92.34	2,596.89 ± 966.29	2,354.54 ± 996.83	2.20	< 0.113
Potassium (mg/1000 kcal)	1,672.64 ± 24.99^a	1,827.65 ± 936.60^b	1,922.74 ± 949.95^b	14.21	< 0.001∗∗∗
Zinc (mg/1000 kcal)	168,4.94 ± 90.08	168,5.09 ± 990.15	168,5.28 ± 990.13	2.33	< 0.099
Vitamin A (µgRE/1000 kcal)	1,421.79 ± 12.10^a	1,440.80 ± 917.21^a	1,505.43 ± 931.86^ab	3.06	< 0.048∗
Retinol (µg/1000kcal)	16,42.61 ± 93.01	16,36.80 ± 991.87	16,42.50 ± 994.57	2.05	< 0.130
β-carotene (µg/1000 kcal)	2,161.93 ± 78.60^a	2,596.44 ± 248.90^a	2,684.50 ± 195.91^ab	3.98	< 0.020∗
Thiamine (mg/1000 kcal)	168,0.63 ± 90.01^a	168,0.65 ± 990.01^a	168,0.69 ± 990.01^b	6.14	< 0.002∗∗
Riboflavin (mg/1000 kcal)	168,0.59 ± 90.01	168,0.61 ± 990.02	168,0.63 ± 990.02	1.69	< 0.186
Vitamin B₆ (mg/1000 kcal)	168,1.13 ± 90.02^a	168,1.19 ± 990.02^a	168,1.23 ± 990.03^ab	5.08	< 0.007∗∗
Niacin (mg/1000 kcal)	168,9.07 ± 90.13^a	168,9.74 ± 990.20^b	16,10.23 ± 990.27^b	10.82	< 0.001∗∗∗
Vitamin C (mg/1000 kcal)	16,70.34 ± 92.49	16,77.37 ± 993.49	16,78.98 ± 994.36	2.35	< 0.097
Folic acid (µg/1000 kcal)	1,147.20 ± 93.06^a	1,167.79 ± 996.12^b	1,169.83 ± 995.56^b	8.17	< 0.001∗∗∗
Vitamin E (mg/1000 kcal)	168,6.81 ± 90.29	168,7.21 ± 990.27	168,8.34 ± 990.69	2.38	< 0.094

1) Mean ± SE

ab: Different letters within a category represent statistical differences by whole grain intakes from Tukey-Kramer's multiple comparison test

^∗

: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001

Table 4.

Mean % Dietary Reference Intakes according to the level of whole grain consumption

Variables	Whole grain intake level(g/day)			F	p
Variables	0 (n = 1,137)	> 0 & < 20 (n = 531)	≥ 20 (n = 285)	F	p
Protein (%DRI)	132.26 ± 62.66^a1)	135.15 ± 3.50^a	147.59 ± 64.88^ab	3.92	< 0.021∗
Dietary Fiber (%DRI)	109.37 ± 63.49^a	110.35 ± 3.36^a	137.85 ± 65.19^b	13.47	< 0.001∗∗∗
Calcium (%DRI)	672.98 ± 61.89^a	674.51 ± 2.22^a	683.58 ± 63.53^b	3.45	< 0.033∗
Phosphorus (%DRI)	123.24 ± 62.31^a	128.24 ± 2.77^a	149.53 ± 63.87^b	16.87	< 0.001∗∗∗
Sodium (%DRI)	278.50 ± 10.11	268.96 ± 7.12	266.22 ± 11.81	0.42	< 0.655
Potassium (%DRI)	677.59 ± 61.81^a	681.82 ± 2.42^a	695.29 ± 63.84^b	9.09	< 0.001∗∗∗
Vitamin A (%DRI)	112.47 ± 63.54^a	113.37 ± 4.60^a	138.77 ± 68.76^b	4.24	< 0.015∗
Vitamin E (%DRI)	121.42 ± 69.99	117.09 ± 5.33	162.37 ± 22.55	1.91	< 0.150
Vitamin C (%DRI)	112.29 ± 64.30	118.66 ± 5.51	130.04 ± 67.00	2.35	< 0.097
Thiamine (%DRI)	694.28 ± 62.38^a	692.76 ± 2.29^a	107.82 ± 63.75^b	6.26	< 0.002∗∗
Riboflavin (%DRI)	681.21 ± 62.76^a	680.20 ± 2.59^a	692.65 ± 64.62^b	3.08	< 0.047∗
Niacin (%DRI)	105.83 ± 62.35^a	110.36 ± 3.36^a	125.78 ± 64.90^b	7.63	< 0.010∗∗
Vitamin B₆ (%DRI)	132.18 ± 63.68^a	134.41 ± 3.64^a	147.16 ± 64.42^b	3.83	< 0.023∗
₆ Folic acid (%DRI)	658.94 ± 61.46^a	664.50 ± 2.24^a	671.20 ± 62.79^ab	7.81	< 0.001∗∗∗

¹⁾

Mean ± SE

ab: Different letters within a category represent statistical differences by whole grain intakes from Tukey-Kramer's multiple comparison test

^∗

: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001

Table 5.

Subjects meeting Dietary Reference Intakes according to the level of whole grain consumption

Variables	Whole grain intake level (g/day)			F	p
Variables	0 (n = 1,137)	> 0 & < 20 (n = 531)	≥ 20 (n = 285)	F	p
Protein (%DRI)	715 (64.5)¹⁾	349 (68.1)	214 (72.9)	2.49	< 0.083
Dietary Fiber (%DRI)	491 (43.4)	255 (49.8)	177 (61.7)	12.46	< 0.001∗∗∗
Calcium (%DRI)	225 (20.7)	112 (21.0)	67 (24.7)	0.86	< 0.426
Phosphorus (%DRI)	645 (58.2)	344 (67.6)	228 (78.1)	15.61	< 0.001∗∗∗
Sodium (%DRI)	1,053 (93.4)	491 (92.7)	255 (88.8)	2.77	< 0.063
Potassium (%DRI)	232 (20.9)	115 (22.4)	88 (30.2)	4.41	< 0.012∗
Vitamin A (%DRI)	474 (42.1)	228 (44.6)	139 (50.7)	2.47	< 0.085
Vitamin E (%DRI)	423 (38.8)	224 (46.1)	139 (49.1)	5.60	< 0.004∗∗
Vitamin C (%DRI)	460 (40.2)	227 (44.0)	143 (49.8)	3.40	< 0.033∗
Thiamine (%DRI)	360 (32.3)	173 (34.0)	129 (42.7)	4.30	< 0.014∗
Riboflavin (%DRI)	271 (25.7)	114 (22.7)	82 (27.8)	1.20	< 0.303
Niacin (%DRI)	479 (44.9)	247 (49.3)	166 (55.2)	3.82	< 0.022∗
Vitamin B₆ (%DRI)	642 (57.6)	314 (62.0)	215 (74.0)	9.04	< 0.001∗∗∗
Folic acid (%DRI)	136 (12.7)	62 (12.6)	49 (17.6)	1.86	< 0.155

¹⁾

N (%), ∗: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001

Table 6.

Multivariate-adjusted¹⁾ mean biochemical & anthropometric parameters according to the level of whole grain consumption

Variables	Whole grain intake level (g/day)			F	p
Variables	0	> 0 & < 20	≥ 20	F	p
Blood glucose (mg/dL) (n = 1,831)	992.65 ± 0.79²⁾	992.20 ± 1.04	991.92 ± 0.98	0.50	< 0.610
Insulin (µIU/mL) (n = 956)	999.32 ± 0.50^a	998.38 ± 0.48^b	998.91 ± 0.52^ab	5.60	< 0.004∗∗
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) (n = 1,840)	198.65 ± 2.48	198.76 ± 2.57	195.34 ± 3.38	0.81	< 0.448
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) (n = 956)	956.57 ± 1.33^a	957.41 ± 1.64^a	953.10 ± 1.67^b	6.96	< 0.001∗∗∗
LDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) (n = 244)	125.44 ± 5.48	124.13 ± 6.51	126.59 ± 6.95	0.10	< 0.905
Triglyceride (mg/dL) (n = 1,840)	124.86 ± 7.35^a	117.35 ± 7.41^a	111.89 ± 7.99^b	4.76	< 0.009∗∗
Waist circumference (cm) (n = 1,881)	978.25 ± 0.55	977.54 ± 0.68	977.91 ± 0.74	1.08	< 0.341
Body mass index (kg/m²) (n = 1,883)	923.06 ± 0.17	922.92 ± 0.22	923.21 ± 0.26	0.76	< 0.470
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) (n = 900)	109.86 ± 1.43	109.48 ± 1.94	109.55 ± 1.77	0.05	< 0.951
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) (n = 900)	973.09 ± 0.95	971.69 ± 1.25	972.80 ± 1.20	0.98	< 0.377

¹⁾

Adjusted for age, smoking status, educational status, income status, and marriage status

²⁾

Mean ± SE

ab: Different letters within a category represent statistical differences by whole grain intakes from Tukey-Kramer's multiple comparison test

^∗

: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001

Table 7.

Multivariate-adjusted¹⁾ proportions of metabolic risks according to the level of whole grain consumption

Variables	Whole grain intake level (g/day)			F	p
Variables	0	> 0 & < 20	≥ 20	F	p
Waist circumference (cm) ≥ 85	21.4 ± 2.6^2),a	17.0 ± 3.2^b	15.5 ± 3.5^b	3.10	0.046∗
Triglyceride (mg/dL) ≥ 150	20.4 ± 2.6^a	16.8 ± 3.1^a	12.8 ± 3.5^b	4.20	0.016∗
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) < 50	72.1 ± 4.2	68.8 ± 5.6	64.6 ± 6.1	1.20	0.303
Blood glucose (mg/dL) ≥ 100	20.2 ± 2.9	17.4 ± 3.3	15.6 ± 3.3	1.37	0.256
Blood pressure (mmHg) ≥ 130/85	96.7 ± 1.8	92.6 ± 2.4	94.1 ± 3.1	1.53	0.219

¹⁾

Adjusted for age, smoking status, educational status, income status, and marriage status

²⁾

Mean ± SE

ab: Different letters within a category represent statistical differences by whole grain intakes from Tukey-Kramer's multiple comparison test

^∗

: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001