1)전주대학교 식품영양학과 교수
2)단국대학교 식품영양학과 대학원생
3)단국대학교 식품영양학과 교수
1)Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Jeonju University, Jeonju, Korea
2)Master Student, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
3)Professor, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
© 2025 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
This research was supported by the Korea Educational Environments Protection Agency (Grant No. R202201176).
DATA AVAILABILITY
Research data is available upon request to the corresponding author.
Category |
School level |
Total (n = 532) | F or t | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students (n = 101) | Upper elementary school students (n = 152) | Middle and high school students (n = 279) | |||
Age (year) | 40.29 ± 5.56c, 1) | 10.66 ± 2.44a | 14.96 ± 2.37b | 17.83 ± 10.58 | 2672.688*** |
Father’s highest educational level2) (n = 156) | 8.299 | ||||
High school graduate or less | 1 (1.6) | 1 (2.8) | 4 (7.1) | 6 (3.8) | |
College graduate | 42 (65.6) | 23 (63.9) | 44 (78.6) | 109 (69.9) | |
Post graduate education | 21 (32.8) | 12 (33.3) | 8 (14.3) | 41 (26.3) | |
Mother’s highest educational level2) (n = 150) | 13.134 | ||||
Elementary or less | 0 (0.0) | 2 (5.4) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (1.3) | |
High school graduate or less | 2 (3.2) | 2 (5.4) | 6 (11.8) | 10 (6.7) | |
College graduate | 42 (67.7) | 28 (75.7) | 37 (72.5) | 107 (71.3) | |
Post graduate education | 18 (29.0) | 5 (13.5) | 8 (15.7) | 31 (20.7) | |
Average monthly household total income2) (n = 108, unit: 10,000 won) | 15.185 | ||||
150–300 less | 2 (3.5) | 1 (4.5) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (2.7) | |
300–450 less | 6 (10.5) | 2 (9.1) | 1 (3.2) | 9 (8.2) | |
450–600 less | 14 (24.6) | 4 (18.2) | 8 (25.8) | 26 (23.6) | |
600–750 less | 8 (14.0) | 4 (18.2) | 4 (12.9) | 16 (14.5) | |
750–900 less | 11 (19.3) | 2 (9.1) | 8 (25.8) | 21 (19.1) | |
900–1,500 less | 15 (26.3) | 4 (18.2) | 8 (25.8) | 27 (24.5) | |
More than 1,500 | 1 (1.8) | 5 (22.7) | 2 (6.5) | 8 (7.3) | |
Residential area3) (n = 528) | 208.656*** | ||||
Seoul | 34 (34.0) | 22 (14.8) | 41 (14.7) | 97 (18.4) | |
Busan | 1 (1.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.2) | |
Incheon | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Daegu | 2 (2.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (0.4) | |
Daejeon | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Gwangju | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.7) | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.4) | |
Ulsan | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.7) | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.4) | |
Sejong | 3 (3.0) | 1 (0.7) | 24 (8.6) | 28 (5.3) | |
Gyeonggi-do | 26 (26.0) | 44 (29.5) | 27 (9.7) | 97 (18.4) | |
Chungcheongbuk-do | 0 (0.0) | 12 (8.1) | 33 (11.8) | 45 (8.5) | |
Chungcheongnam-do | 7 (7.0) | 7 (4.7) | 14 (5.0) | 28 (5.3) | |
Jeollabuk-do | 2 (2.0) | 2 (1.3) | 3 (1.1) | 7 (1.3) | |
Jeoollanam-do | 1 (1.0) | 51 (34.2) | 33 (11.8) | 85 (16.1) | |
Gyeongsangbuk-do | 1 (1.0) | 2 (1.3) | 2 (0.7) | 5 (0.9) | |
Gyeongsangnam-do | 3 (3.0) | 0 (0.0) | 17 (6.1) | 20 (3.8) | |
Gangwon-do | 9 (9.0) | 5 (3.4) | 80 (28.7) | 94 (17.8) | |
Jeju island | 11 (11.0) | 1 (0.7) | 3 (1.1) | 15 (2.8) |
Category |
Perception score by school level |
Total (n = 532) | F | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students | Upper elementary school students | Middle and high school students | |||
(n = 101) | (n = 152) | (n = 279) | |||
School meals are nutritionally excellent | 4.24 ± 0.741) | 4.21 ± 1.01 | 4.26 ± 0.80 | 4.24 ± 0.85 | 0.148 |
School meals use safe ingredients | 4.42 ± 0.68 | 4.57 ± 0.93 | 4.38 ± 0.76 | 4.44 ± 0.80 | 2.872 |
School meals help students develop proper eating habits | 4.29 ± 0.79 | 4.15 ± 1.06 | 4.16 ± 0.94 | 4.18 ± 0.95 | 0.78 |
School meals are strictly hygienic | 4.42 ± 0.71 | 4.24 ± 1.08 | 4.27 ± 0.87 | 4.29 ± 0.91 | 1.272 |
Eco-friendly agricultural products are used in school meals | 4.39 ± 1.01 | 4.62 ± 1.07 | 4.53 ± 0.97 | 4.53 ± 1.01 | 1.539 |
School meals help students learn about traditional food culture | 3.71 ± 1.10 | 4.01 ± 1.35 | 3.94 ± 1.22 | 3.91 ± 1.24 | 1.813 |
School meals are helpful for social, economic, and environmental aspects | 4.32 ± 0.87ab, 2) | 4.52 ± 1.28b | 4.14 ± 1.10a | 4.28 ± 1.13 | 5.685** |
Student/parent opinions are reflected in school meals | 3.63 ± 1.20a | 4.41 ± 1.35b | 4.19 ± 1.11b | 4.15 ± 1.23 | 13.116*** |
School lunch utensils, including plates, spoons, and chopsticks, are clean | 4.40 ± 0.76 | 4.48 ± 1.06 | 4.24 ± 0.87 | 4.34 ± 0.91 | 3.564 |
The dining room tables, chairs, etc. are clean | 4.30 ± 0.81 | 4.26 ± 1.29 | 4.15 ± 0.91 | 4.21 ± 1.02 | 1.011 |
The school lunch menu is diverse | 4.40 ± 0.74 | 4.35 ± 1.00 | 4.22 ± 0.95 | 4.29 ± 0.93 | 1.851 |
A program is underway to reduce food waste | 4.23 ± 1.24ab | 4.57 ± 1.16b | 4.06 ± 1.23a | 4.23 ± 1.23 | 8.570*** |
School lunches are delicious | 4.13 ± 0.91 | 4.11 ± 1.18 | 4.14 ± 1.01 | 4.13 ± 1.04 | 0.043 |
The dining area (restaurant or class) is clean | 4.35 ± 0.70 | 4.34 ± 1.12 | 4.27 ± 0.81 | 4.31 ± 0.89 | 0.391 |
Antibiotic-free livestock products are used in school meals | 4.48 ± 1.24a | 4.97 ± 1.11b | 4.77 ± 1.13a, b | 4.77 ± 1.16 | 5.524** |
Category |
School level |
Total (n = 532) | F | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students (n = 101) | Upper elementary school students (n = 152) | Middle and high school students (n = 279) | |||
Kindergarten and school lunches rarely provide high-trans fatty acid foods or high-calorie, low-nutrition foods | 3.86 ± 0.94b, 1), 2) | 3.41 ± 1.00a | 3.56 ± 0.98a | 3.58 ± 0.992) | 6.318** |
Kindergarten and school meals rarely contain fast food or processed foods | 3.81 ± 0.96b | 3.43 ± 1.05a | 3.63 ± 0.96a | 3.61 ± 0.99 | 4.584* |
Kindergarten and school meals use a variety of ingredients, including grains, meat, vegetables, and fruits | 4.55 ± 0.59b | 4.44 ± 0.83b | 4.18 ± 0.78a | 4.33 ± 0.78 | 11.073*** |
Kindergarten and school lunches use a variety of cooking methods | 4.26 ± 0.73 | 4.12 ± 1.02 | 4.05 ± 0.89 | 4.11 ± 0.90 | 2.051 |
Kindergarten and school lunches use a variety of cooking methods | 4.14 ± 0.93 | 3.95 ± 1.14 | 3.95 ± 0.88 | 3.99 ± 0.97 | 1.490 |
Kindergarten and school lunches use a lot of natural and seasonal foods | 4.29 ± 0.78b | 4.11 ± 0.87ab | 3.92 ± 0.91a | 4.04 ± 0.89 | 7.261*** |
Kindergarten and school lunches provide fried food no more than twice a week | 3.97 ± 0.96b | 3.72 ± 1.09ab | 3.58 ± 0.97a | 3.69 ± 1.01 | 5.493** |
Category |
Preference score by school level |
Total (n = 532) | F | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students | Upper elementary school students | Middle and high school students | ||||||||
(n = 101) | (n = 152) | (n = 279) | ||||||||
Meat side dishes (beef, chicken, pork, etc.) | 4.34 ± 0.701) | 4.28 ± 0.93 | 4.39 ± 0.72 | 4.35 ± 0.78 | 0.874 | |||||
Fruits | 4.50 ± 0.69 | 4.38 ± 0.85 | 4.39 ± 0.79 | 4.41 ± 0.79 | 0.805 | |||||
Beverages | 2.99 ± 1.03a, 2) | 4.30 ± 0.99b | 4.46 ± 0.86b | 4.12 ± 1.08 | 94.709*** | |||||
Chicken | 3.71 ± 0.90a | 4.26 ± 1.06b | 4.27 ± 0.87b | 4.16 ± 0.96 | 14.394*** | |||||
Doenjang-gug | 3.98 ± 0.88b | 3.66 ± 1.22a | 3.69 ± 1.01a, b | 3.74 ± 1.05 | 3.385* | |||||
Fish | 3.87 ± 1.07b | 3.34 ± 1.25a | 3.18 ± 1.22a | 3.36 ± 1.22 | 12.247*** | |||||
Vegetables | 4.12 ± 0.92b | 3.45 ± 1.23a | 3.55 ± 1.06a | 3.63 ± 1.12 | 13.018*** | |||||
Noodles (e.g. udon, spaghetti, rice noodles) | 3.88 ± 0.82a | 4.36 ± 0.96b | 4.33 ± 0.88b | 4.26 ± 0.91 | 10.947*** | |||||
Bread (e.g. pies, tarts, etc.) | 3.51 ± 0.87a | 3.96 ± 1.13b | 4.20 ± 0.93b | 4.00 ± 1.02 | 18.511*** | `1 | ||||
Multigrain rice | 3.85 ± 0.90 | 3.68 ± 1.12 | 3.66 ± 0.97 | 3.70 ± 1.00 | 1.397 | |||||
Fried food | 3.36 ± 0.87a | 3.82 ± 1.14b | 3.98 ± 1.03b | 3.82 ± 1.06 | 12.975*** | |||||
Kimchi | 3.74 ± 0.91 | 3.78 ± 1.19 | 3.80 ± 1.04 | 3.78 ± 1.06 | 0.118 |
Category | School level |
Total (n = 532) | F or t | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students (n = 101) | Upper elementary school students (n = 152) | Middle and high school students (n = 279) | |||
Age (year) | 40.29 ± 5.56c, |
10.66 ± 2.44a | 14.96 ± 2.37b | 17.83 ± 10.58 | 2672.688 |
Father’s highest educational level |
8.299 | ||||
High school graduate or less | 1 (1.6) | 1 (2.8) | 4 (7.1) | 6 (3.8) | |
College graduate | 42 (65.6) | 23 (63.9) | 44 (78.6) | 109 (69.9) | |
Post graduate education | 21 (32.8) | 12 (33.3) | 8 (14.3) | 41 (26.3) | |
Mother’s highest educational level |
13.134 | ||||
Elementary or less | 0 (0.0) | 2 (5.4) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (1.3) | |
High school graduate or less | 2 (3.2) | 2 (5.4) | 6 (11.8) | 10 (6.7) | |
College graduate | 42 (67.7) | 28 (75.7) | 37 (72.5) | 107 (71.3) | |
Post graduate education | 18 (29.0) | 5 (13.5) | 8 (15.7) | 31 (20.7) | |
Average monthly household total income |
15.185 | ||||
150–300 less | 2 (3.5) | 1 (4.5) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (2.7) | |
300–450 less | 6 (10.5) | 2 (9.1) | 1 (3.2) | 9 (8.2) | |
450–600 less | 14 (24.6) | 4 (18.2) | 8 (25.8) | 26 (23.6) | |
600–750 less | 8 (14.0) | 4 (18.2) | 4 (12.9) | 16 (14.5) | |
750–900 less | 11 (19.3) | 2 (9.1) | 8 (25.8) | 21 (19.1) | |
900–1,500 less | 15 (26.3) | 4 (18.2) | 8 (25.8) | 27 (24.5) | |
More than 1,500 | 1 (1.8) | 5 (22.7) | 2 (6.5) | 8 (7.3) | |
Residential area |
208.656 |
||||
Seoul | 34 (34.0) | 22 (14.8) | 41 (14.7) | 97 (18.4) | |
Busan | 1 (1.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.2) | |
Incheon | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Daegu | 2 (2.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (0.4) | |
Daejeon | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Gwangju | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.7) | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.4) | |
Ulsan | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.7) | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.4) | |
Sejong | 3 (3.0) | 1 (0.7) | 24 (8.6) | 28 (5.3) | |
Gyeonggi-do | 26 (26.0) | 44 (29.5) | 27 (9.7) | 97 (18.4) | |
Chungcheongbuk-do | 0 (0.0) | 12 (8.1) | 33 (11.8) | 45 (8.5) | |
Chungcheongnam-do | 7 (7.0) | 7 (4.7) | 14 (5.0) | 28 (5.3) | |
Jeollabuk-do | 2 (2.0) | 2 (1.3) | 3 (1.1) | 7 (1.3) | |
Jeoollanam-do | 1 (1.0) | 51 (34.2) | 33 (11.8) | 85 (16.1) | |
Gyeongsangbuk-do | 1 (1.0) | 2 (1.3) | 2 (0.7) | 5 (0.9) | |
Gyeongsangnam-do | 3 (3.0) | 0 (0.0) | 17 (6.1) | 20 (3.8) | |
Gangwon-do | 9 (9.0) | 5 (3.4) | 80 (28.7) | 94 (17.8) | |
Jeju island | 11 (11.0) | 1 (0.7) | 3 (1.1) | 15 (2.8) |
Category | Perception score by school level |
Total (n = 532) | F | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students | Upper elementary school students | Middle and high school students | |||
(n = 101) | (n = 152) | (n = 279) | |||
School meals are nutritionally excellent | 4.24 ± 0.74 |
4.21 ± 1.01 | 4.26 ± 0.80 | 4.24 ± 0.85 | 0.148 |
School meals use safe ingredients | 4.42 ± 0.68 | 4.57 ± 0.93 | 4.38 ± 0.76 | 4.44 ± 0.80 | 2.872 |
School meals help students develop proper eating habits | 4.29 ± 0.79 | 4.15 ± 1.06 | 4.16 ± 0.94 | 4.18 ± 0.95 | 0.78 |
School meals are strictly hygienic | 4.42 ± 0.71 | 4.24 ± 1.08 | 4.27 ± 0.87 | 4.29 ± 0.91 | 1.272 |
Eco-friendly agricultural products are used in school meals | 4.39 ± 1.01 | 4.62 ± 1.07 | 4.53 ± 0.97 | 4.53 ± 1.01 | 1.539 |
School meals help students learn about traditional food culture | 3.71 ± 1.10 | 4.01 ± 1.35 | 3.94 ± 1.22 | 3.91 ± 1.24 | 1.813 |
School meals are helpful for social, economic, and environmental aspects | 4.32 ± 0.87ab, |
4.52 ± 1.28b | 4.14 ± 1.10a | 4.28 ± 1.13 | 5.685 |
Student/parent opinions are reflected in school meals | 3.63 ± 1.20a | 4.41 ± 1.35b | 4.19 ± 1.11b | 4.15 ± 1.23 | 13.116 |
School lunch utensils, including plates, spoons, and chopsticks, are clean | 4.40 ± 0.76 | 4.48 ± 1.06 | 4.24 ± 0.87 | 4.34 ± 0.91 | 3.564 |
The dining room tables, chairs, etc. are clean | 4.30 ± 0.81 | 4.26 ± 1.29 | 4.15 ± 0.91 | 4.21 ± 1.02 | 1.011 |
The school lunch menu is diverse | 4.40 ± 0.74 | 4.35 ± 1.00 | 4.22 ± 0.95 | 4.29 ± 0.93 | 1.851 |
A program is underway to reduce food waste | 4.23 ± 1.24ab | 4.57 ± 1.16b | 4.06 ± 1.23a | 4.23 ± 1.23 | 8.570 |
School lunches are delicious | 4.13 ± 0.91 | 4.11 ± 1.18 | 4.14 ± 1.01 | 4.13 ± 1.04 | 0.043 |
The dining area (restaurant or class) is clean | 4.35 ± 0.70 | 4.34 ± 1.12 | 4.27 ± 0.81 | 4.31 ± 0.89 | 0.391 |
Antibiotic-free livestock products are used in school meals | 4.48 ± 1.24a | 4.97 ± 1.11b | 4.77 ± 1.13a, b | 4.77 ± 1.16 | 5.524 |
Category | School level |
Total (n = 532) | F | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students (n = 101) | Upper elementary school students (n = 152) | Middle and high school students (n = 279) | |||
Kindergarten and school lunches rarely provide high-trans fatty acid foods or high-calorie, low-nutrition foods | 3.86 ± 0.94b, |
3.41 ± 1.00a | 3.56 ± 0.98a | 3.58 ± 0.99 |
6.318 |
Kindergarten and school meals rarely contain fast food or processed foods | 3.81 ± 0.96b | 3.43 ± 1.05a | 3.63 ± 0.96a | 3.61 ± 0.99 | 4.584 |
Kindergarten and school meals use a variety of ingredients, including grains, meat, vegetables, and fruits | 4.55 ± 0.59b | 4.44 ± 0.83b | 4.18 ± 0.78a | 4.33 ± 0.78 | 11.073 |
Kindergarten and school lunches use a variety of cooking methods | 4.26 ± 0.73 | 4.12 ± 1.02 | 4.05 ± 0.89 | 4.11 ± 0.90 | 2.051 |
Kindergarten and school lunches use a variety of cooking methods | 4.14 ± 0.93 | 3.95 ± 1.14 | 3.95 ± 0.88 | 3.99 ± 0.97 | 1.490 |
Kindergarten and school lunches use a lot of natural and seasonal foods | 4.29 ± 0.78b | 4.11 ± 0.87ab | 3.92 ± 0.91a | 4.04 ± 0.89 | 7.261 |
Kindergarten and school lunches provide fried food no more than twice a week | 3.97 ± 0.96b | 3.72 ± 1.09ab | 3.58 ± 0.97a | 3.69 ± 1.01 | 5.493 |
Category | Preference score by school level |
Total (n = 532) | F | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parents of kindergarten/the lower grades of elementary school students | Upper elementary school students | Middle and high school students | ||||||||
(n = 101) | (n = 152) | (n = 279) | ||||||||
Meat side dishes (beef, chicken, pork, etc.) | 4.34 ± 0.70 |
4.28 ± 0.93 | 4.39 ± 0.72 | 4.35 ± 0.78 | 0.874 | |||||
Fruits | 4.50 ± 0.69 | 4.38 ± 0.85 | 4.39 ± 0.79 | 4.41 ± 0.79 | 0.805 | |||||
Beverages | 2.99 ± 1.03a, |
4.30 ± 0.99b | 4.46 ± 0.86b | 4.12 ± 1.08 | 94.709 |
|||||
Chicken | 3.71 ± 0.90a | 4.26 ± 1.06b | 4.27 ± 0.87b | 4.16 ± 0.96 | 14.394 |
|||||
Doenjang-gug | 3.98 ± 0.88b | 3.66 ± 1.22a | 3.69 ± 1.01a, b | 3.74 ± 1.05 | 3.385 |
|||||
Fish | 3.87 ± 1.07b | 3.34 ± 1.25a | 3.18 ± 1.22a | 3.36 ± 1.22 | 12.247 |
|||||
Vegetables | 4.12 ± 0.92b | 3.45 ± 1.23a | 3.55 ± 1.06a | 3.63 ± 1.12 | 13.018 |
|||||
Noodles (e.g. udon, spaghetti, rice noodles) | 3.88 ± 0.82a | 4.36 ± 0.96b | 4.33 ± 0.88b | 4.26 ± 0.91 | 10.947 |
|||||
Bread (e.g. pies, tarts, etc.) | 3.51 ± 0.87a | 3.96 ± 1.13b | 4.20 ± 0.93b | 4.00 ± 1.02 | 18.511 |
`1 | ||||
Multigrain rice | 3.85 ± 0.90 | 3.68 ± 1.12 | 3.66 ± 0.97 | 3.70 ± 1.00 | 1.397 | |||||
Fried food | 3.36 ± 0.87a | 3.82 ± 1.14b | 3.98 ± 1.03b | 3.82 ± 1.06 | 12.975 |
|||||
Kimchi | 3.74 ± 0.91 | 3.78 ± 1.19 | 3.80 ± 1.04 | 3.78 ± 1.06 | 0.118 |
n(%) or Mean ± SD. Post hoc tests were conducted using Scheffé’s method. Different subscript letters (a–c) indicate statistically significant differences at Optional, not required. Percentage was calculated as the ratio excluding the number of non-respondents.
Mean ± SD. 5-point scale: 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree. Post hoc tests were conducted using Scheffé’s method. Different subscript letters indicate statistically significant differences at
Mean ± SD. 5-point scale: 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree. Post hoc tests were conducted using Scheffé’s method. Different subscript letters (a, b) indicate statistically significant differences at
Mean ± SD. 5 point scale: 1 = never preferred; 2 = not preferred; 3 = neutral; 4 = preferred; 5 = strongly preferred. Post hoc tests were conducted using Scheffé’s method. Different subscript letters (a, b) indicate statistically significant differences at