, 윤지현2),3)
, 황린시4)
, 남영민4),†
, Jihyun Yoon2),3)
, Linxi Huang4)
, Youngmin Nam4),†
1)서울대학교 식품영양학과, 석사과정
2)서울대학교 식품영양학과, 교수
3)서울대학교 생활과학연구소, 겸무연구원
4)서울대학교 식품영양학과, 박사과정
1)MS Student, Department of Food and Nutrition, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
2)Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
3)Adjunct Researcher, Research Institute of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
4)PhD Student, Department of Food and Nutrition, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
© 2024 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of Interest
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data Availability
The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors sincerely acknowledge BEBECOOK for their financial assistance with schoolwork during this study.
| Characteristics | Total (n = 378) | Low-knowledge group1) (n = 115) | Mid-knowledge group1) (n = 166) | High-knowledge group1) (n = 97) | P-value2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group | 0.129 | ||||
| 20s | 94 (24.9) | 30 (26.1) | 46 (27.7) | 18 (18.6) | |
| 30s | 147 (38.9) | 36 (31.3) | 67 (40.4) | 44 (45.4) | |
| 40s | 137 (36.2) | 49 (42.6) | 53 (31.9) | 35 (36.1) | |
| Region | 0.790 | ||||
| Seoul and Metropolitan area | 223 (59.0) | 67 (58.3) | 101 (60.8) | 55 (56.7) | |
| Other areas | 155 (41.0) | 48 (41.7) | 65 (39.2) | 42 (43.3) | |
| Education level | 0.468 | ||||
| ≤ High school | 53 (14.0) | 13 (11.3) | 28 (16.9) | 12 (12.4) | |
| College | 294 (77.8) | 90 (78.3) | 128 (77.1) | 76 (78.4) | |
| ≥ Graduate school | 31 (8.2) | 12 (10.4) | 10 (6.0) | 9 (9.3) | |
| Occupation | 0.042 | ||||
| Housewife | 171 (45.2) | 43 (37.4) | 77 (46.4) | 51 (52.6) | |
| Full-time employer | 170 (45.0) | 55 (47.8) | 79 (47.6) | 36 (37.1) | |
| Part-time employer | 37 (9.8) | 17 (14.8) | 10 (6.0) | 10 (10.3) | |
| Average household income (KRW/month) | 0.977 | ||||
| < 3,000,000 | 70 (18.5) | 21 (18.3) | 32 (19.3) | 17 (17.5) | |
| 3,000,000 to < 5,000,000 | 161 (42.6) | 48 (41.7) | 69 (41.6) | 44 (45.4) | |
| ≥ 5,000,000 | 147 (38.9) | 46 (40.0) | 65 (39.2) | 36 (37.1) | |
| Gender of child consuming convenience complementary foods most recently | 0.532 | ||||
| Men | 184 (48.7) | 52 (45.2) | 86 (51.8) | 46 (47.4) | |
| Women | 194 (51.3) | 63 (54.8) | 80 (48.2) | 51 (52.6) | |
| Age of child consuming convenience complementary foods most recently3) | 0.117 | ||||
| 4 to < 12 months | 82 (21.7) | 19 (16.5) | 40 (24.1) | 23 (23.7) | |
| 1 to < 3 years | 104 (27.5) | 30 (26.1) | 41 (24.7) | 33 (34.0) | |
| 3 to < 5 years | 114 (30.2) | 36 (31.3) | 48 (28.9) | 30 (30.9) | |
| 5 to < 7 years | 78 (20.6) | 30 (26.1) | 37 (22.3) | 11 (11.3) | |
| Birth order of child consuming convenience complementary foods most recently | 0.511 | ||||
| First born | 220 (58.2) | 72 (62.6) | 94 (56.6) | 54 (55.7) | |
| Second or later born | 158 (41.8) | 43 (37.4) | 72 (43.4) | 43 (44.3) | |
| Educational experience on complementary foods | 0.671 | ||||
| Yes | 96 (25.4) | 26 (22.6) | 43 (25.9) | 27 (27.8) | |
| No | 282 (74.6) | 89 (77.4) | 123 (74.1) | 70 (72.2) | |
| Score for knowledge on complementary foods | 58.8 ± 12.5 | 43.7 ± 7.3 | 60.7 ± 4.0 | 73.5 ± 4.7 | < 0.001 |
n (%) or Mean ± SD.
1)Each of the 20 questions was assigned 5 points, resulting in a total score of 100 points. Low-knowledge group: 0–50 points; mid-knowledge group: 55–65 points; high-knowledge group: 70–100 points.
2)χ2 test.
3)Preschool children (4 months to < 7 years) with experience of consuming convenience complementary foods.
| Items | Total1) | Low-knowledge group2) | Mid-knowledge group2) | High-knowledge group2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 96) | (n = 26) | (n = 43) | (n = 27) | |
| Institution providing education on complementary foods | ||||
| Public institutions (e.g. public health centers, administrative welfare centers) | 30 (31.3) | 4 (15.4) | 15 (34.9) | 11 (40.7) |
| Hospitals (obstetrics, gynecology, and pediatric departments) | 25 (26.0) | 6 (23.1) | 13 (30.2) | 6 (22.2) |
| Lectures (e.g. maternity/childbirth/parenting classes and seminars provided by companies) | 12 (12.5) | 7 (26.9) | 3 (7.0) | 2 (7.4) |
| Cultural centers | 11 (11.5) | 4 (15.4) | 5 (11.6) | 2 (7.4) |
| Postpartum care centers | 11 (11.5) | 2 (7.7) | 6 (14.0) | 3 (11.1) |
| Online platforms (e.g. YouTube) | 7 (7.3) | 3 (11.5) | 1 (2.3) | 3 (11.1) |
| P3) = 0.211 | ||||
| Occupation of educators providing education on complementary foods | ||||
| Doctors and nurses | 29 (30.2) | 8 (30.8) | 12 (27.9) | 9 (33.3) |
| Nutritionists | 22 (22.9) | 3 (11.5) | 13 (30.2) | 6 (22.2) |
| Professors and professional instructors | 19 (19.8) | 10 (38.5) | 5 (11.6) | 4 (14.8) |
| Staff of public health centers | 10 (10.4) | 1 (3.8) | 6 (14.0) | 3 (11.1) |
| Unknown | 16 (16.7) | 4 (15.4) | 7 (16.3) | 5 (18.5) |
| P3) = 0.265 | ||||
| (n = 378) | (n = 115) | (n = 166) | (n = 97) | |
| Resource of information on complementary foods (multiple responses) | ||||
| Online communities (e.g. cafes and blogs) | 322 (85.2) | 95 (82.6) | 143 (86.1) | 84 (86.6) |
| Books | 247 (65.3) | 70 (60.9) | 105 (63.3) | 72 (74.2) |
| Family and acquaintances | 204 (54.0) | 60 (52.2) | 91 (54.8) | 53 (54.6) |
| Hospitals | 111 (29.4) | 31 (27.0) | 51 (30.7) | 29 (29.9) |
| Companies (e.g. advertisements and websites) | 76 (20.1) | 24 (20.9) | 30 (18.1) | 22 (22.7) |
| Government agencies (e.g. public health centers and publications) | 62 (16.4) | 22 (19.1) | 22 (13.3) | 18 (18.6) |
| Lectures (parenting classes) | 39 (10.3) | 10 (8.7) | 16 (9.6) | 13 (13.4) |
| Desired information on complementary foods (multiple responses) | ||||
| Types of complementary foods corresponding to for each phase of child’s development | 273 (72.2) | 86 (74.8) | 117 (70.5) | 70 (72.2) |
| Intake amounts corresponding to each phase of child’s development | 228 (60.3) | 64 (55.7) | 96 (57.8) | 68 (70.1) |
| Impact of complementary foods on child’s growth and development | 170 (45.0) | 44 (38.3) | 82 (49.4) | 44 (45.4) |
| Appropriate period for weaning | 145 (38.4) | 46 (40.0) | 67 (40.4) | 32 (33.0) |
| Attention when feeding complementary foods | 131 (34.7) | 36 (31.3) | 59 (35.5) | 36 (37.1) |
| Frequency of feeding complementary foods | 126 (33.3) | 44 (38.3) | 51 (30.7) | 31 (32.0) |
| Methods used for feeding complementary foods | 86 (22.8) | 34 (29.6) | 33 (19.9) | 19 (19.6) |
| Items | Total | Proportion of correct answers |
|---|---|---|
| Reasons for starting complementary foods | 82.5 | |
| Nutritional supplementation for growth1) | 312 (82.5) | |
| Enhancing digestive ability | 28 (7.4) | |
| Foods not given before the age of 6 months | 62.2 | |
| Orange juice1) | 235 (62.2) | |
| Mashed meat or fish | 127 (33.6) | |
| Correct description of infant milk formula and infant formula | 61.1 | |
| Infant milk formula is a substitute for breast milk, and infant formula is regular food.1) | 231 (61.1) | |
| It is necessary to feed infant formula during the weaning period. | 56 (14.8) | |
| It is permissible to feed infant formula instead of complementary foods. | 35 (9.3) | |
| Not much difference between infant milk formula and infant formula | 28 (7.4) | |
| Infant formula contains a higher amount of lactose than infant milk formula. | 28 (7.4) | |
| Common nutritional problems in infants during weaning period | 55.6 | |
| Iron deficiency1) | 210 (55.6) | |
| Protein deficiency | 71 (18.8) | |
| Vitamin deficiency | 45 (11.9) | |
| Calcium deficiency | 40 (10.6) | |
| Reasons for powdered grain drinks being unsuitable as complementary foods | 41.3 | |
| Difficult to identify the source of allergies 1) | 156 (41.3) | |
| Digestive difficulties | 93 (24.6) | |
| Imbalanced nutrition | 86 (22.8) | |
| Potential bacterial contamination | 23 (6.1) | |
| Increased likelihood of picky eating | 20 (5.3) | |
| Reasons for not feeding cow’s milk early | 33.3 | |
| Poor digestion | 225 (59.5) | |
| Increased risk of allergies and anemia1) | 126 (33.3) | |
| Correct description of breast milk and infant milk formula | 32.5 | |
| Not much difference between breast milk and infant milk formula | 128 (33.9) | |
| Continuing breastfeeding until the completion of the weaning process is recommended.1) | 123 (32.5) | |
| Alternating between breast milk and infant milk formula is recommended. | 71 (18.8) | |
| Introducing infant milk formula is recommended when starting complementary foods. | 53 (14.0) | |
| Recommended time to start consuming basic food groups, excluding fats and sugars | 17.5 | |
| ≥ 12 months | 215 (56.9) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 90 (23.8) | |
| 6 to < 8 months1) | 66 (17.5) |
| Items | Total | Proportion of correct answers |
|---|---|---|
| Forms of the first complementary foods | 97.1 | |
| Rice gruel1) | 367 (97.1) | |
| Methods for feeding complementary foods | 94.2 | |
| Using a spoon1) | 356 (94.2) | |
| Types of the first complementary foods | 88.9 | |
| Rice gruel1) | 336 (88.9) | |
| Fruit puree | 26 (6.9) | |
| Appropriate amount of seasoning for complementary foods | 74.1 | |
| No salt and sugar1) | 280 (74.1) | |
| Less salt and sugar than adults’ foods | 85 (22.5) | |
| Appropriate temperature for complementary foods | 63.8 | |
| Temperature similar to body temperature1) | 241 (63.8) | |
| Temperature slightly lower than body temperature | 73 (19.3) | |
| Temperature slightly higher than body temperature | 45 (11.9) | |
| Order of increasing water content | 63.8 | |
| Rice gruel > porridge > soft rice > mushy rice > rice1) | 241 (63.8) | |
| Rice gruel > porridge > mushy rice > soft rice > rice | 119 (31.5) | |
| Times for feeding complementary foods | 59.0 | |
| Before feeding breast milk or infant milk formula1) | 223 (59.0) | |
| When the child is hungry | 57 (15.1) | |
| After feeding breast milk or infant milk formula | 46 (12.2) | |
| Parent’s mealtime | 35 (9.3) |
| Items | Total | Proportion of correct answers |
|---|---|---|
| Starting age for cow’s milk | 84.4 | |
| ≥ 12 months1) | 319 (84.4) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 29 (7.7) | |
| 6 to < 8 months | 21 (5.6) | |
| Completion age for complementary foods | 57.9 | |
| 12 to < 18 months1) | 219 (57.9) | |
| ≥ 18 months | 114 (30.2) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 43 (11.4) | |
| Starting age for complementary foods | 48.9 | |
| 6 to < 8 months1) | 185 (48.9) | |
| 4 to < 6 months | 133 (35.2) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 40 (10.6) | |
| ≥ 12 months | 20 (5.3) | |
| Symptoms not caused by using a bottle beyond the recommended weaning age | 32.0 | |
| Frequent hunger1) | 121 (32.0) | |
| Increased risk of ear infections | 120 (27.0) | |
| Impaired tooth development | 82 (21.7) | |
| Increased likelihood of picky eating | 43 (11.4) | |
| Causes nutritional imbalances | 30 (7.9) | |
| Starting age for cup use | 25.4 | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 152 (40.2) | |
| ≥ 12 months | 116 (30.7) | |
| 6 to < 8 months1) | 96 (25.4) |
| Items | Total (n = 378) | Low-knowledge group1) (n = 115) | Mid-knowledge group1) (n = 166) | High-knowledge group1) (n = 97) | P-value2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Health | 0.002 | ||||
| Balanced nutrition | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.7a | 4.4 ± 0.6ab | 4.5 ± 0.5b | 0.022 |
| Use of organic ingredients | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 3.9 ± 0.8 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 0.219 |
| Use of seasonal ingredients | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.8 | 0.491 |
| Substitute/exclude potential allergens | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 0.448 |
| Origin of ingredients | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7ab | 4.2 ± 0.7a | 4.4 ± 0.6b | 0.023 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.929, F = 2.797, df1 = 10, df2 = 7422) | |||||
| Variety | 0.039 | ||||
| Variety of compositions according to the stage of complementary feeding | 4.5 ± 0.6 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 4.5 ± 0.6 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | 0.239 |
| Variety in packaging containers | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 0.056 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.974, F = 2.528, df1 = 4, df2 = 7482) | |||||
| Hygiene | 0.041 | ||||
| Same-day production and sale/delivery | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.7 | 0.574 |
| Hygienic cooking | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 4.6 ± 0.6a | 4.8 ± 0.5ab | 4.9 ± 0.4b | 0.010 |
| Hygienic packaging | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 0.473 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.966, F = 2.197, df1 = 6, df2 = 7462) | |||||
| Convenience | 0.154 | ||||
| Purchase place | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 0.090 |
| Easy disposal | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 3.9 ± 0.8 | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | 0.203 |
| Individual packaging | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 4.0 ± 0.7 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 0.316 |
| Packaging for easy storage | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 0.596 |
| Portability | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 0.487 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.962, F = 1.449, df1 = 10, df2 = 7422) | |||||
| Taste | 0.217 | ||||
| Different taste from homemade complementary foods | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | 0.088 |
| Child’s preference | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 0.881 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.985, F = 1.447, df1 = 4, df2 = 7482) | |||||
| Price | 0.276 | ||||
| Value compared to the price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 0.724 |
| Reasonable price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 0.544 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.986, F = 1.280, df1 = 4, df2 = 7482) | |||||
Mean ± SD.
The 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree).
In the same row, a and b are significantly different (Duncan’s post hoc test, α = 0.05).
1)Each of the 20 questions was assigned 5 points, resulting in a total score of 100 points. Low-knowledge group: 0–50 points; mid-knowledge group: 55–65 points; high-knowledge group: 70–100 points.
2)Multivariate analysis of variance.
| Items | Importance1) | Performance2) | P-value3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Keep up the good work (first quadrant) | |||
| 6. (Convenience) Good portability | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 0.081 |
| Concentrate here (second quadrant) | |||
| 1. (Hygiene) Hygienic cooking | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 3.9 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 2. (Hygiene) Hygienic packaging | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 |
| 3. (Variety) Variety of compositions according to the stage of complementary feeding | 4.5 ± 0.6 | 4.2 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 4. (Health) Balanced nutrition | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.5 | < 0.001 |
| 5. (Convenience) Packaging for easy storage | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 1.000 |
| 7. (Price) Reasonable price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.6 ± 0.8 | < 0.001 |
| 8. (Health) Reliable origin of ingredients | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 9. (Price) Good value compared to the price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 10. (Taste) Preferred taste by child | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.6 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 11. (Hygiene) Same-day production and sale/delivery | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 3.7 ± 0.9 | < 0.001 |
| 12. (Health) Substitute products for potential allergens | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.8 | < 0.001 |
| 14. (Health) Mainly uses organic ingredients | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 18. (Health) Mainly uses seasonal ingredients | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.7 | 0.198 |
| Lower priority (third quadrant) | |||
| 16. (Variety) Diverse packaging containers | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.9 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 17. (Taste) Different taste from homemade complementary foods | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | 0.315 |
| Possible overkill (fourth quadrant) | |||
| 13. (Convenience) Mainly individually packaged | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 4.4 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 |
| 15. (Convenience) Easy disposal | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 |
| 19. (Convenience) Easy to purchase | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| Total | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 3.9 ± 0.8 | - |
Mean ± SD.
Assigning the numbers in descending order of importance, beginning with the most important item.
The 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree).
1)Importance of factors taken into consideration when purchasing convenience complementary foods.
2)Performance of factors taken into consideration when making purchases in the convenience complementary food market.
3)Paired t-test.
| Characteristics | Total (n = 378) | Low-knowledge group |
Mid-knowledge group |
High-knowledge group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group | 0.129 | ||||
| 20s | 94 (24.9) | 30 (26.1) | 46 (27.7) | 18 (18.6) | |
| 30s | 147 (38.9) | 36 (31.3) | 67 (40.4) | 44 (45.4) | |
| 40s | 137 (36.2) | 49 (42.6) | 53 (31.9) | 35 (36.1) | |
| Region | 0.790 | ||||
| Seoul and Metropolitan area | 223 (59.0) | 67 (58.3) | 101 (60.8) | 55 (56.7) | |
| Other areas | 155 (41.0) | 48 (41.7) | 65 (39.2) | 42 (43.3) | |
| Education level | 0.468 | ||||
| ≤ High school | 53 (14.0) | 13 (11.3) | 28 (16.9) | 12 (12.4) | |
| College | 294 (77.8) | 90 (78.3) | 128 (77.1) | 76 (78.4) | |
| ≥ Graduate school | 31 (8.2) | 12 (10.4) | 10 (6.0) | 9 (9.3) | |
| Occupation | 0.042 | ||||
| Housewife | 171 (45.2) | 43 (37.4) | 77 (46.4) | 51 (52.6) | |
| Full-time employer | 170 (45.0) | 55 (47.8) | 79 (47.6) | 36 (37.1) | |
| Part-time employer | 37 (9.8) | 17 (14.8) | 10 (6.0) | 10 (10.3) | |
| Average household income (KRW/month) | 0.977 | ||||
| < 3,000,000 | 70 (18.5) | 21 (18.3) | 32 (19.3) | 17 (17.5) | |
| 3,000,000 to < 5,000,000 | 161 (42.6) | 48 (41.7) | 69 (41.6) | 44 (45.4) | |
| ≥ 5,000,000 | 147 (38.9) | 46 (40.0) | 65 (39.2) | 36 (37.1) | |
| Gender of child consuming convenience complementary foods most recently | 0.532 | ||||
| Men | 184 (48.7) | 52 (45.2) | 86 (51.8) | 46 (47.4) | |
| Women | 194 (51.3) | 63 (54.8) | 80 (48.2) | 51 (52.6) | |
| Age of child consuming convenience complementary foods most recently |
0.117 | ||||
| 4 to < 12 months | 82 (21.7) | 19 (16.5) | 40 (24.1) | 23 (23.7) | |
| 1 to < 3 years | 104 (27.5) | 30 (26.1) | 41 (24.7) | 33 (34.0) | |
| 3 to < 5 years | 114 (30.2) | 36 (31.3) | 48 (28.9) | 30 (30.9) | |
| 5 to < 7 years | 78 (20.6) | 30 (26.1) | 37 (22.3) | 11 (11.3) | |
| Birth order of child consuming convenience complementary foods most recently | 0.511 | ||||
| First born | 220 (58.2) | 72 (62.6) | 94 (56.6) | 54 (55.7) | |
| Second or later born | 158 (41.8) | 43 (37.4) | 72 (43.4) | 43 (44.3) | |
| Educational experience on complementary foods | 0.671 | ||||
| Yes | 96 (25.4) | 26 (22.6) | 43 (25.9) | 27 (27.8) | |
| No | 282 (74.6) | 89 (77.4) | 123 (74.1) | 70 (72.2) | |
| Score for knowledge on complementary foods | 58.8 ± 12.5 | 43.7 ± 7.3 | 60.7 ± 4.0 | 73.5 ± 4.7 | < 0.001 |
| Items | Total |
Low-knowledge group |
Mid-knowledge group |
High-knowledge group |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 96) | (n = 26) | (n = 43) | (n = 27) | |
| Institution providing education on complementary foods | ||||
| Public institutions (e.g. public health centers, administrative welfare centers) | 30 (31.3) | 4 (15.4) | 15 (34.9) | 11 (40.7) |
| Hospitals (obstetrics, gynecology, and pediatric departments) | 25 (26.0) | 6 (23.1) | 13 (30.2) | 6 (22.2) |
| Lectures (e.g. maternity/childbirth/parenting classes and seminars provided by companies) | 12 (12.5) | 7 (26.9) | 3 (7.0) | 2 (7.4) |
| Cultural centers | 11 (11.5) | 4 (15.4) | 5 (11.6) | 2 (7.4) |
| Postpartum care centers | 11 (11.5) | 2 (7.7) | 6 (14.0) | 3 (11.1) |
| Online platforms (e.g. YouTube) | 7 (7.3) | 3 (11.5) | 1 (2.3) | 3 (11.1) |
| P |
||||
| Occupation of educators providing education on complementary foods | ||||
| Doctors and nurses | 29 (30.2) | 8 (30.8) | 12 (27.9) | 9 (33.3) |
| Nutritionists | 22 (22.9) | 3 (11.5) | 13 (30.2) | 6 (22.2) |
| Professors and professional instructors | 19 (19.8) | 10 (38.5) | 5 (11.6) | 4 (14.8) |
| Staff of public health centers | 10 (10.4) | 1 (3.8) | 6 (14.0) | 3 (11.1) |
| Unknown | 16 (16.7) | 4 (15.4) | 7 (16.3) | 5 (18.5) |
| P |
||||
| (n = 378) | (n = 115) | (n = 166) | (n = 97) | |
| Resource of information on complementary foods (multiple responses) | ||||
| Online communities (e.g. cafes and blogs) | 322 (85.2) | 95 (82.6) | 143 (86.1) | 84 (86.6) |
| Books | 247 (65.3) | 70 (60.9) | 105 (63.3) | 72 (74.2) |
| Family and acquaintances | 204 (54.0) | 60 (52.2) | 91 (54.8) | 53 (54.6) |
| Hospitals | 111 (29.4) | 31 (27.0) | 51 (30.7) | 29 (29.9) |
| Companies (e.g. advertisements and websites) | 76 (20.1) | 24 (20.9) | 30 (18.1) | 22 (22.7) |
| Government agencies (e.g. public health centers and publications) | 62 (16.4) | 22 (19.1) | 22 (13.3) | 18 (18.6) |
| Lectures (parenting classes) | 39 (10.3) | 10 (8.7) | 16 (9.6) | 13 (13.4) |
| Desired information on complementary foods (multiple responses) | ||||
| Types of complementary foods corresponding to for each phase of child’s development | 273 (72.2) | 86 (74.8) | 117 (70.5) | 70 (72.2) |
| Intake amounts corresponding to each phase of child’s development | 228 (60.3) | 64 (55.7) | 96 (57.8) | 68 (70.1) |
| Impact of complementary foods on child’s growth and development | 170 (45.0) | 44 (38.3) | 82 (49.4) | 44 (45.4) |
| Appropriate period for weaning | 145 (38.4) | 46 (40.0) | 67 (40.4) | 32 (33.0) |
| Attention when feeding complementary foods | 131 (34.7) | 36 (31.3) | 59 (35.5) | 36 (37.1) |
| Frequency of feeding complementary foods | 126 (33.3) | 44 (38.3) | 51 (30.7) | 31 (32.0) |
| Methods used for feeding complementary foods | 86 (22.8) | 34 (29.6) | 33 (19.9) | 19 (19.6) |
| Items | Total | Proportion of correct answers |
|---|---|---|
| Reasons for starting complementary foods | 82.5 | |
| Nutritional supplementation for growth |
312 (82.5) | |
| Enhancing digestive ability | 28 (7.4) | |
| Foods not given before the age of 6 months | 62.2 | |
| Orange juice |
235 (62.2) | |
| Mashed meat or fish | 127 (33.6) | |
| Correct description of infant milk formula and infant formula | 61.1 | |
| Infant milk formula is a substitute for breast milk, and infant formula is regular food. |
231 (61.1) | |
| It is necessary to feed infant formula during the weaning period. | 56 (14.8) | |
| It is permissible to feed infant formula instead of complementary foods. | 35 (9.3) | |
| Not much difference between infant milk formula and infant formula | 28 (7.4) | |
| Infant formula contains a higher amount of lactose than infant milk formula. | 28 (7.4) | |
| Common nutritional problems in infants during weaning period | 55.6 | |
| Iron deficiency |
210 (55.6) | |
| Protein deficiency | 71 (18.8) | |
| Vitamin deficiency | 45 (11.9) | |
| Calcium deficiency | 40 (10.6) | |
| Reasons for powdered grain drinks being unsuitable as complementary foods | 41.3 | |
| Difficult to identify the source of allergies |
156 (41.3) | |
| Digestive difficulties | 93 (24.6) | |
| Imbalanced nutrition | 86 (22.8) | |
| Potential bacterial contamination | 23 (6.1) | |
| Increased likelihood of picky eating | 20 (5.3) | |
| Reasons for not feeding cow’s milk early | 33.3 | |
| Poor digestion | 225 (59.5) | |
| Increased risk of allergies and anemia |
126 (33.3) | |
| Correct description of breast milk and infant milk formula | 32.5 | |
| Not much difference between breast milk and infant milk formula | 128 (33.9) | |
| Continuing breastfeeding until the completion of the weaning process is recommended. |
123 (32.5) | |
| Alternating between breast milk and infant milk formula is recommended. | 71 (18.8) | |
| Introducing infant milk formula is recommended when starting complementary foods. | 53 (14.0) | |
| Recommended time to start consuming basic food groups, excluding fats and sugars | 17.5 | |
| ≥ 12 months | 215 (56.9) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 90 (23.8) | |
| 6 to < 8 months |
66 (17.5) |
| Items | Total | Proportion of correct answers |
|---|---|---|
| Forms of the first complementary foods | 97.1 | |
| Rice gruel |
367 (97.1) | |
| Methods for feeding complementary foods | 94.2 | |
| Using a spoon |
356 (94.2) | |
| Types of the first complementary foods | 88.9 | |
| Rice gruel |
336 (88.9) | |
| Fruit puree | 26 (6.9) | |
| Appropriate amount of seasoning for complementary foods | 74.1 | |
| No salt and sugar |
280 (74.1) | |
| Less salt and sugar than adults’ foods | 85 (22.5) | |
| Appropriate temperature for complementary foods | 63.8 | |
| Temperature similar to body temperature |
241 (63.8) | |
| Temperature slightly lower than body temperature | 73 (19.3) | |
| Temperature slightly higher than body temperature | 45 (11.9) | |
| Order of increasing water content | 63.8 | |
| Rice gruel > porridge > soft rice > mushy rice > rice |
241 (63.8) | |
| Rice gruel > porridge > mushy rice > soft rice > rice | 119 (31.5) | |
| Times for feeding complementary foods | 59.0 | |
| Before feeding breast milk or infant milk formula |
223 (59.0) | |
| When the child is hungry | 57 (15.1) | |
| After feeding breast milk or infant milk formula | 46 (12.2) | |
| Parent’s mealtime | 35 (9.3) |
| Items | Total | Proportion of correct answers |
|---|---|---|
| Starting age for cow’s milk | 84.4 | |
| ≥ 12 months |
319 (84.4) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 29 (7.7) | |
| 6 to < 8 months | 21 (5.6) | |
| Completion age for complementary foods | 57.9 | |
| 12 to < 18 months |
219 (57.9) | |
| ≥ 18 months | 114 (30.2) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 43 (11.4) | |
| Starting age for complementary foods | 48.9 | |
| 6 to < 8 months |
185 (48.9) | |
| 4 to < 6 months | 133 (35.2) | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 40 (10.6) | |
| ≥ 12 months | 20 (5.3) | |
| Symptoms not caused by using a bottle beyond the recommended weaning age | 32.0 | |
| Frequent hunger |
121 (32.0) | |
| Increased risk of ear infections | 120 (27.0) | |
| Impaired tooth development | 82 (21.7) | |
| Increased likelihood of picky eating | 43 (11.4) | |
| Causes nutritional imbalances | 30 (7.9) | |
| Starting age for cup use | 25.4 | |
| 8 to < 12 months | 152 (40.2) | |
| ≥ 12 months | 116 (30.7) | |
| 6 to < 8 months |
96 (25.4) |
| Items | Total (n = 378) | Low-knowledge group |
Mid-knowledge group |
High-knowledge group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Health | 0.002 | ||||
| Balanced nutrition | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.7a | 4.4 ± 0.6ab | 4.5 ± 0.5b | 0.022 |
| Use of organic ingredients | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 3.9 ± 0.8 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 0.219 |
| Use of seasonal ingredients | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.8 | 0.491 |
| Substitute/exclude potential allergens | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 0.448 |
| Origin of ingredients | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7ab | 4.2 ± 0.7a | 4.4 ± 0.6b | 0.023 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.929, F = 2.797, df1 = 10, df2 = 742 |
|||||
| Variety | 0.039 | ||||
| Variety of compositions according to the stage of complementary feeding | 4.5 ± 0.6 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 4.5 ± 0.6 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | 0.239 |
| Variety in packaging containers | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 0.056 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.974, F = 2.528, df1 = 4, df2 = 748 |
|||||
| Hygiene | 0.041 | ||||
| Same-day production and sale/delivery | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.7 | 0.574 |
| Hygienic cooking | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 4.6 ± 0.6a | 4.8 ± 0.5ab | 4.9 ± 0.4b | 0.010 |
| Hygienic packaging | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 0.473 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.966, F = 2.197, df1 = 6, df2 = 746 |
|||||
| Convenience | 0.154 | ||||
| Purchase place | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 0.090 |
| Easy disposal | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 3.9 ± 0.8 | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | 0.203 |
| Individual packaging | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 4.0 ± 0.7 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 0.316 |
| Packaging for easy storage | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 0.596 |
| Portability | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 0.487 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.962, F = 1.449, df1 = 10, df2 = 742 |
|||||
| Taste | 0.217 | ||||
| Different taste from homemade complementary foods | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | 0.088 |
| Child’s preference | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 0.881 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.985, F = 1.447, df1 = 4, df2 = 748 |
|||||
| Price | 0.276 | ||||
| Value compared to the price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 0.724 |
| Reasonable price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 0.544 |
| Wilks’ λ = 0.986, F = 1.280, df1 = 4, df2 = 748 |
|||||
| Items | Importance |
Performance |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Keep up the good work (first quadrant) | |||
| 6. (Convenience) Good portability | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 0.081 |
| Concentrate here (second quadrant) | |||
| 1. (Hygiene) Hygienic cooking | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 3.9 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 2. (Hygiene) Hygienic packaging | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 |
| 3. (Variety) Variety of compositions according to the stage of complementary feeding | 4.5 ± 0.6 | 4.2 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 4. (Health) Balanced nutrition | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.5 | < 0.001 |
| 5. (Convenience) Packaging for easy storage | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 1.000 |
| 7. (Price) Reasonable price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.6 ± 0.8 | < 0.001 |
| 8. (Health) Reliable origin of ingredients | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 9. (Price) Good value compared to the price | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 10. (Taste) Preferred taste by child | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.6 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 11. (Hygiene) Same-day production and sale/delivery | 4.2 ± 0.8 | 3.7 ± 0.9 | < 0.001 |
| 12. (Health) Substitute products for potential allergens | 4.1 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.8 | < 0.001 |
| 14. (Health) Mainly uses organic ingredients | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 18. (Health) Mainly uses seasonal ingredients | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.7 | 0.198 |
| Lower priority (third quadrant) | |||
| 16. (Variety) Diverse packaging containers | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.9 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| 17. (Taste) Different taste from homemade complementary foods | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | 0.315 |
| Possible overkill (fourth quadrant) | |||
| 13. (Convenience) Mainly individually packaged | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 4.4 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 |
| 15. (Convenience) Easy disposal | 3.8 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 0.6 | < 0.001 |
| 19. (Convenience) Easy to purchase | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 4.4 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 |
| Total | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 3.9 ± 0.8 | - |
n (%) or Mean ± SD. Each of the 20 questions was assigned 5 points, resulting in a total score of 100 points. Low-knowledge group: 0–50 points; mid-knowledge group: 55–65 points; high-knowledge group: 70–100 points. χ2 test. Preschool children (4 months to < 7 years) with experience of consuming convenience complementary foods.
n (%). Respondents with educational experience on complementary foods. Each of the 20 questions was assigned 5 points, resulting in a total score of 100 points. Low-knowledge group: 0-50 points; mid-knowledge group: 55–65 points; high-knowledge group: 70–100 points. Fisher’s exact test.
n (%) or %. Responses less than 5% are not displayed. Correct answers.
n (%) or %. Responses less than 5% are not displayed. Correct answers.
n (%) or %. Responses less than 5% are not displayed. Correct answers.
Mean ± SD. The 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). In the same row, a and b are significantly different (Duncan’s post hoc test, α = 0.05). Each of the 20 questions was assigned 5 points, resulting in a total score of 100 points. Low-knowledge group: 0–50 points; mid-knowledge group: 55–65 points; high-knowledge group: 70–100 points. Multivariate analysis of variance.
Mean ± SD. Assigning the numbers in descending order of importance, beginning with the most important item. The 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). Importance of factors taken into consideration when purchasing convenience complementary foods. Performance of factors taken into consideration when making purchases in the convenience complementary food market. Paired t-test.
