Korean Journal of Community Nutrition

Research Articles

[Korean]
Estimating and evaluating usual total fat and fatty acid intake in the Korean population using data from the 2019–2021 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: a cross-sectional study: Gyeong-yoon Lee, Dong Woo Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2023;28(5):414-422. Published online October 31, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2023.28.5.414

Objectives
This study evaluated usual dietary intakes of total fat and fatty acids among the Korean population based on the revised Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans 2020 (2020 KDRIs).
Methods
This study utilized data from the eighth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2019–2021). We included 18,895 individuals aged 1 year and above whose 1-day 24-hour dietary recall data were available. To calculate the external variability using the National Cancer Institute 1-day method, data from the U.S. NHANES 2017-March 2020 Pre-pandemic dataset were employed. The total fat and fatty acid intake were evaluated based on the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) and Adequate intake (AI) of 2020 KDRIs for each sex and age groups.
Results
Approximately 86% of the Korean population obtained an adequate amount of energy from total fat consumption (within the AMDRs), indicating an appropriate level of intake. However, the percentage of individuals consuming saturated fatty acids below the AMDR was low, with only 12% among those under 19 years of age and 52% aged 19 years and older. On a positive note, approximately 70% of the population showed adequate consumption of essential fatty acids, exceeding the AI. Nevertheless, monitoring the intake ratio of omega 3 (n-3) to omega 6 (n-6) fatty acids is essential to ensure an optimum balance.
Conclusions
This study explored the possibility of estimating the distribution of nutrient intake in a population by applying the external variability ratio. Therefore, if future KNHANES conduct multiple 24-hour recalls every few years-similar to the U.S. NHANESeven for a subset of participants, this may aid in the accurate assessment of the nutritional status of the population.

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The association between COVID-19 and changes in food consumption in Korea: analyzing the microdata of household income and expenditure from Statistics Korea 2019–2022
Haram Eom, Kyounghee Kim, Seonghwan Cho, Junghoon Moon
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2024; 57(1): 153. CrossRef
Dietary intake and food sources of essential fatty acids among Korean adolescents: a cross-sectional study based on the 2016–2021 KNHANES data
Enkhgerel Erdenetsetseg, Hye Ran Shin, SuJin Song
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(2): 144. CrossRef

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[Korean]
Regional Differences in Dietary Total Fat and Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Their Associations with Metabolic Diseases among Korean Adults: Using the 2016~2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: SuJin Song, Jae Eun Shim; Korean J Community Nutr 2021;26(6):495-507. Published online December 31, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2021.26.6.495

Abstract PDF

Objectives
This study examined regional differences in the intake of dietary total fat and saturated fatty acid (SFA) and their food sources among Korean adults. We also investigated the associations of SFA intake with metabolic diseases by region.
Methods
This study included 13,926 adults ( 19y) who participated in the 2016 ~ 2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. The regions were divided into urban and rural areas according to the administrative districts where the participants lived. Using dietary data obtained from a 24-h recall, intake of total fat and SFA and their food sources were assessed by region. Metabolic diseases included obesity, abdominal obesity, and elevated total cholesterol and their association with SFA intake by region were examined using multiple logistic regression.
Results
Of the participants, 19.6% lived in rural areas. In urban areas, the total fat and SFA intakes were higher than in rural areas: 21.2% of energy (%E) came from total fat and 6.9%E from SFA in urban areas, whereas 18.0%E came from total fat and 5.8%E from SFA in rural areas. The percentage of participants who exceeded the dietary reference intakes for total fat and SFA in urban areas was 16.5% and 41.9%, respectively, but 43.4% of participants in rural areas showed lower intake levels for total fat compared to the reference level. Young adults did not show regional differences in fat intake, and the percentage of subjects who exceeded the reference for SFA was high both in urban (58.5%) and rural (55.7%) areas. Among middle-aged and older adults, intake of fatty acids except for n-3 fatty acid was significantly higher in urban areas than in rural areas. About 69% of older adults in rural areas showed a lower intake of total fat compared to the reference level. The food sources for total fat and SFA were meat, soybean oil, eggs, and milk in both areas. The intake of fat from eggs, milk, mayonnaise, and bread was higher in urban areas, but the intake of fat from white rice and coffee mix was higher in rural areas. The SFA intake was positively associated with elevated serum total cholesterol in urban areas (4th quartile vs. 1st quartile, OR: 1.22, 95% CI: 1.06-1.40, P for trend: 0.043), but not in rural areas.

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Regional differences in protein intake and protein sources of Korean older adults and their association with metabolic syndrome using the 2016–2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: a cross-sectional study
You-Sin Lee, Yoonna Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(3): 173. CrossRef
Association between the Korean Healthy Diet Score and Metabolic Syndrome: Effectiveness and Optimal Cutoff of the Korean Healthy Diet Score
Soo-Hyun Kim, Hyojee Joung
Nutrients.2024; 16(19): 3395. CrossRef
Biochemical characteristics, nutrient intakes, and chronic disease risk according to the dietary fat energy ratio in middle-aged Korean: a cross-sectional study using data from the 7th (2016–2018) Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Ga-Hyeon Jeong, Sook-Bae Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(6): 528. CrossRef
Estimating and evaluating usual total fat and fatty acid intake in the Korean population using data from the 2019–2021 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: a cross-sectional study
Gyeong-yoon Lee, Dong Woo Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2023; 28(5): 414. CrossRef
Associations of Dietary Intakes of Total and Specific Types of Fat with Blood Lipid Levels in the Filipino Women’s Diet and Health Study (FiLWHEL)
Heejin Lee, Hyojin Kim, Sherlyn Mae P. Provido, Minji Kang, Grace H. Chung, Jae W. Lee, Sangmo Hong, Sung Hoon Yu, Chang Beom Lee, Jung Eun Lee
Global Heart.2023; 18(1): 29. CrossRef
Regional Differences in Metabolic Risk in the Elderly in Korea
Ji-Myung Kim, Yun-Jung Bae
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2022; 19(18): 11675. CrossRef

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Original Articles

[English]
Evaluation of Total Fat and Fatty Acids Intakes in the Korean Adult Population using Data from the 2016–2017 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: SuJin Song, Jae Eun Shim; Korean J Community Nutr 2019;24(3):223-231. Published online June 30, 2019; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2019.24.3.223

Abstract PDF PubReader

OBJECTIVES
This study evaluated dietary intakes of total fat and fatty acids among the Korean adult population.
METHODS
This cross-sectional study used the 2016â€“2017 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. A total of 10,772 subjects aged â‰¥19 y for which dietary data were available were selected. Data pertaining to energy and nutrient intakes were obtained by a 24-h recall method. Total fat and fatty acids intakes were evaluated based on the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) of 2015 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans by sex and age groups. All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design effect and sampling weights.
RESULTS
The mean intakes of energy and total fat were 1,952 kcal (95% CI: 1928â€“1977) and 46.1 g (45.2â€“47.1), respectively, and about 21% of the energy was obtained from fat in this study population (21.7% in men and 20.2% in women). The mean percentages of energy from saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids were 6.4%, 6.7%, and 5.2%, respectively. About 18% of adults exceeded the AMDR for fat (30% of energy), whereas 37.6% exceeded the AMDR for saturated fatty acids (7% of energy). The proportions of subjects who consumed more than the AMDR for fat and saturated fatty acids decreased across age groups in both sexes. Among young adults (19â€“29 y), about 63% of the subjects obtained â‰¥7% of their energy from saturated fatty acids. About 61% of older adults obtained less than 15% of their energy from total fat.
CONCLUSIONS
Increased intake of fat energy was prominent in saturated fatty acids. Our findings suggest current information on total fat and fatty acids intakes in Korean adults and can be used to provide dietary guidelines for the improvement of public health.

Citations

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Dietary patterns derived by reduced rank regression are associated with lipid disorders among Korean adults: a cross-sectional analysis
Hyun Ah Kim, Hye Ran Shin, SuJin Song
Lipids in Health and Disease.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Dietary intake and food sources of essential fatty acids among Korean adolescents: a cross-sectional study based on the 2016–2021 KNHANES data
Enkhgerel Erdenetsetseg, Hye Ran Shin, SuJin Song
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(2): 144. CrossRef
Nutrition and food intake status among adults in Jeju according to sociodemographic characteristics and obesity
Hyunji Ham, Hanbin Ko, Sumin Kim, Youjeong Jang, Jong-Seok Byun, Yoonsuk Jekal, Insuk Chai, Kyungho Ha
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2024; 57(6): 667. CrossRef
Biochemical characteristics, nutrient intakes, and chronic disease risk according to the dietary fat energy ratio in middle-aged Korean: a cross-sectional study using data from the 7th (2016–2018) Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Ga-Hyeon Jeong, Sook-Bae Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(6): 528. CrossRef
Evaluation of Nutritional Content of Snacks for Smart Snack Choices
Chae Young Yoon, Eunju Kim
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2023; 33(4): 264. CrossRef
Trends in dietary intake and food sources of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids among Korean adults between 2007 and 2018
Jae Eun Shim, Youngmi Lee, SuJin Song
Epidemiology and Health.2023; 45: e2023069. CrossRef
Diabetes and Dietary Fats
Jae Won Cho
The Journal of Korean Diabetes.2023; 24(3): 154. CrossRef
Association of Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Its Food Sources With Hypercholesterolemia in Middle-Aged Korean Men and Women
In Young Jeong, Jae Eun Shim, SuJin Song
CardioMetabolic Syndrome Journal.2022; 2(2): 142. CrossRef
Increasing trends in dietary total fat and fatty acid intake among Korean children: using the 2007–2017 national data
SuJin Song, Jae Eun Shim
Nutrition Research and Practice.2022; 16(2): 260. CrossRef
Substitution of Carbohydrates for Fats and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes among Korean Middle-Aged Adults: Findings from the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study
Hye-Ah Lee, Hyesook Park
Nutrients.2022; 14(3): 654. CrossRef
Food behaviors accounting for the recent trends in dietary fatty acid profiles among Korean adults
SuJin Song, Jae Eun Shim
Nutrition Research and Practice.2022; 16(3): 405. CrossRef
Current status of nutrient intake in Korea: focused on macronutrients
Seung-Won Oh
Journal of the Korean Medical Association.2022; 65(12): 801. CrossRef
Regional Differences in Dietary Total Fat and Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Their Associations with Metabolic Diseases among Korean Adults: Using the 2016~2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
SuJin Song, Jae Eun Shim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(6): 495. CrossRef
The number of teeth is associated with diet quality in Korean adult population
Hye-Sun Shin
Archives of Oral Biology.2020; 118: 104882. CrossRef
Trends in Dietary Intake of Total Fat and Fatty Acids Among Korean Adolescents from 2007 to 2017
SuJin Song, Jae Eun Shim
Nutrients.2019; 11(12): 3073. CrossRef

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[English]
Comparison of Maternal Fatty Acid Intake and Fatty Acid Composition of Serum Phospholipids Between Singleton and Twin Pregnancies: Seul Ki Kwon, Soo Jeoung Lim, Joong Sik Shin, Sung Hee Jang, Hong Seok Ahn; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(4):555-564. Published online August 31, 2008

Abstract PDF: Essential fatty acids are important essential nutrients during pregnancy. The objective of this study was to compare fatty acid composition of serum phospholipids and essential fatty acid intakes between Korean pregnant women with a single baby and Korean pregnant women with twins. A total of 116 pregnant women who had maintained their health without any symptoms of pregnancy complications participated in the study. The subjects consisted of 57 women of singleton pregnancy and 58 women of twin pregnancy at the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd trimester of pregnancy. A 24-hour dietary recall was administered to each subject to obtain dietary information. The mean ages of the singleton pregnancy group and the twin pregnancy group were 31.44 years and 32.27 years, respectively, and the mean height values were 161.86 cm and 160.64 cm, respectively. The mean daily energy intakes in the singleton pregnancy group were 1639.95 kcal, 1904.71 kcal, and 1882.82 kcal for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimester group, respectively. The mean daily energy intakes in the twin pregnancy group were 1745.99 kcal, 2203.46 kcal, and 2092.26 kcal for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimester group, respectively. There were no significant differences in the mean fatty acid intakes by the type of pregnancy (i.e., singleton vs. twins and the stage of pregnancy (i.e., 1st vs. 2nd vs. 3rd trimester). However, the mean total fatty acid intake of those at the 1st trimester among the singleton pregnancy group tended to be higher than that of those at the 1st trimester among the twin pregnancy group. Such a trend seemed to be retro-versed. That is, the mean total fatty acid intakes of the twin pregnancy group were higher compared to the singleton pregnancy group for the 2nd and 3rd trimester group. The LA and total n6 concentrations of serum phospholipids of the singleton pregnancy group were significantly higher as the gestational age increased (p < 0.05). The alpha-LNA(p < 0.05), EPA (p < 0.05), and total n3 (p < 0.001) concentrations of serum phospholipids of the twin pregnancy group were significantly lower as the gestational age increased. The alpha-LNAconcentrations of serum phospholipids in the singleton pregnancy group at the 3rd trimester were significantly higher than that in the twin pregnancy group at the same trimester (p < 0.05). The serum phospholipids levels of AA and DHA of the twin pregnancy group were generally higher compared to those of the singleton pregnancy group. Particularly the differences reached at the level of statistical significance for those at the 1st trimester (p < 0.01). It is concluded that the study findings imply that fatty acid metabolism may meaningfully differ by the type and stage of pregnancy. Future research needs to be conducted to more elucidate grounding etiology and possible roles of dietary fatty acid intake levels in relation to the study findings.

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[English]
The Relationship between Serum Cholesterol Levels and Dietary Fatty Acid Patterns, Plasma Fatty Acids, and Other Lipid Profile among Korean Adults: Jeong Sook Kim, Youn Kyoung Suh, Hyung Sook Kim, Kyung Ja Chang, Haymie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(2):192-201. Published online April 30, 2003

Abstract PDF: The purposes of this research were to assess dietary fatty acid patterns and to elucidate the relationship between the serum cholesterol levels and dietary fatty acid patterns, plasma fatty acid compositions, BMI (body mass index), and other lipid profile. The subjects were 151 adults aged 23 to 80 years, selected from the Outpatient Clinic and Cardiovascular Department of the Seoul Municipal Hospital. Dietary data were obtained using three day food records. Sixteen dietary fatty acids were analyzed using Korean and US nutrient databases. The subjects were divided into three serum cholesterol levels: desirable (< 200 mg/dl, N = 44), borderline-risk (> or = 200 - < 240 mg/dl, N = 35), and high-risk (> or = 240 mg/dl, N = 72) groups. The high-risk group had higher BMI, waist, and waist to hip ratio (WHR) than the desirable and borderline-risk groups. Serum concentrations of triglyceride, LDL cholesterol and LDL/HDL cholesterol ratio were significantly higher in the high-risk group as compared to those in the other two groups. The serum cholesterol levels were highly correlated with BMI (r = 0.435), triglyceride (r = 0.425) and LDL/HDL cholesterol (r = 0.870) ratio. The highest fatty acid intake was from oleic acid (33 - 34% of total fatty acid intakes), which was followed by linoleic acid (27%), palmitic acid (19%), and stearic acid (7%). There was no correlation between the serum cholesterol levels and the dietary fatty acid intakes, polyunsaturated/monounsaturated/saturated fatty acids (P/M/S) and omega6/omega3 ratios. The correlation between plasma fatty acids such as myristic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid and serum cholesterol levels was also weak.

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[English]
A Long Term Observation of Total Cholesterol, Blood Pressure, BMI and Blood Glucose Concerned with Dietary Intake: In Sook Kim, Eun A Seo; Korean J Community Nutr 2000;5(2):172-184. Published online July 31, 2000

Abstract PDF: To establish a basic cohort which can survey the nutrient and food intake related to the health status of the middle and old-aged vertically, a longitudinal survey of 110 adults over forty years old was conducted three times in Chon-ju city over 5 years (1994-1999), and the influences of health status by changes in their nutrient and food intake were examined in this study. The results were as follows ; The number of subjects was 110(43 man, 67 women), 10.0% in their forties, 28.2% in their fifties, 45.4% in their sixties 6.4% over seventy, and their average age was 61.4. There were decrease of height about 1 cm, increase of body fat % and few changes of BMI during the testing period. As the subjects were aging, the percentage of anemia increased, but averages of blood pressure and blood glucose(men : 91.8 mg/dl, women : 90.3 mg/dl) were constant. Total cholesterol increased from 196.7 mg/dl to 212.6 mg/dl(P 0.05) over five years, and the numerical values for women were higher than that of men. In many cases, lack of nutrient intake was shown, as compared with the Recommended Dietary allowance(RDA) especially calcium and vitamin A(71.7%, 64.9% of RDA). Grains intake showed a tendency to decrease(P 0.01). On the contrary, fruit intake showed a tendency to increase(P 0.001). On whole meal, plant foods were 85.1% and animal foods were 14.9%. As dietary factors influencing health status were investigated, blood glucose was influenced by vitamin B2, potatoes and triglyceride, DBP and SBP were affected by vitamin B1, vitamin C, legumes, fishes, triglyceride and age. Total cholesterol was under the influence of triglyceride, milk, seeds and fat. BMI was influenced by iron, SBP, animal food, and age.

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