Korean Journal of Community Nutrition

[Korean]
Intake of energy and macronutrients according to household income among elementary, middle, and high school students before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study: Chae-Eun Jeong, Heejin Lee, Jung Eun Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2024;29(3):234-252. Published online June 30, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.29.3.234

Abstract PDF PubReader ePub: Objectives
This study examined the intake of energy and macronutrients among elementary, middle, and high school students according to household income before the COVID-19 pandemic (2016–2019), during the social distancing period (2020–2021), and after the social distancing measures were lifted (2022).
Methods
We included 5,217 students aged 5–18 from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) conducted between 2016 and 2022. Dietary intake was assessed using one-day 24-hour dietary recalls. We estimated the least squares means (LS-means) of intake according to household income for each period using a weighted linear regression model, adjusted for age and sex. Differences in LS-means between the periods were analyzed using the t-test.
Results
During the social distancing period, the LS-means of energy intake among students decreased significantly by 143.2 kcal/day compared to pre-pandemic levels (P < 0.001). Students from low-income households experienced a more pronounced decrease in energy intake (−379.1 kcal/day, P < 0.001) and macronutrient intake compared to those from other income groups. Energy intake at school significantly declined for all income groups during the social distancing period compared to before the pandemic. No significant changes in home energy intake were observed among low-income students, whereas there was an increase for students from higher-income groups. Before the pandemic, 8.5% of students from low-income households reported insufficient food due to economic difficulties; this figure rose to 21.3% during the pandemic.
Conclusions
During the pandemic, students from low-income families experienced significantly lower intake of energy and macronutrients compared to pre-pandemic levels. The most substantial reductions were noted among low-income students, largely due to the lack of compensation for decreased school-based intake with increased intake at home.

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[English]
Consumption of Han-sik and its Association with Socioeconomic Status among Filipino Immigrant Women: the Filipino Women's Diet and Health Study (FiLWHEL): Nayeon Kim, Minji Kang, Grace Abris, Sherlyn Mae P Provido, Hyojee Joung, Sangmo Hong, Sung Hoon Yu, Chang Beom Lee, Jung Eun Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(6):475-487. Published online December 31, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.6.475

Abstract PDF PubReader: OBJECTIVES
This study examined the consumption of Han-sik and its association with the years of residence in Korea and the socioeconomic status among Filipino immigrant women of the Filipino Women's Diet and Health Study (FiLWHEL).
METHODS
A total of 474 Filipino women married to Korean men were included in the analysis. Their dietary intake was assessed using a single-day 24-hour recall. The participants provided information on the demographics, socioeconomic, and health-related factors through face-to-face interviews. The generalized linear model and logistic regression model were used to examine the association between the socioeconomic status and consumption of Han-sik.
RESULTS
The mean age of the participants was 34.3 years old, and the average duration of residence in Korea was 8.2 years. Among 474 Filipino women, a total of 467 consumed Han-sik, with an average of 6.8 food items per day. The Han-sik foods that the participants consumed most frequently were rice, cabbage kimchi, mixed-grain rice, and fried eggs. The average ratio of Han-sik was 58.57%. The ratio of Han-sik showed no significant associations with the years of residence, years of living together with their husband, education levels, total annual family income, or linguistic competence of Korean. However, the ratio of Han-sik use was associated with cohabitation with parents-in-law; the odds ratio (95% confidence interval) was 2.41 (1.18â€“4.92, p-trend = 0.002) comparing the fourth quartile with the first quartile of the Han-sik ratio.
CONCLUSIONS
Filipino immigrant women in the FiLWHEL study consumed a larger number of Han-sik than Philippine foods. In addition, cohabitation with their parents-in-law was associated with the consumption of Han-sik. Further epidemiologic studies will be needed to determine how the diet affects the health and wellbeing of immigrant women in Korea.

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[English]
Comparison of Dietary Patterns by Sex and Urbanization in Different Economic Status: Jihyun Choi, Hyun Kyung Moon; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(3):346-358. Published online June 30, 2008

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study is to find differences in dietary patterns through menu analysis by economic status. The data was obtained from the 1998 and 2001 National Health and Nutrition Survey of Korea. The main variables were economic status, sex, and area by urbanization. The economic status was classified into low, middle, high, and top classes using a poverty line based on the 1998 and 2001 minimum standard cost of living. The areas were divided into metropolis, small city, and rural areas. The dishes of 3 meals were classified into 29 categories by cooking method. The most frequent pattern was "rice + soup + kimchi". The frequency of this Korean basic dietary pattern was the lowest in the top income class and metropolis areas, while the highest in the low income class and rural areas. The frequency of Korean recommended dietary pattern, that is, "rice + soup or stew + kimchi + side dish" was the highest in the top income class. The metropolis group preferred side dishes using meat and a cooking method that saved time, but the rural group preferred side dishes using vegetables and cooking methods that take a longer time. In comparison of dietary pattern between male and female by economic status, the higher economic status, the male's dietary patterns showed more side dishes than those of female. But the main side dish was kimchi in male low class. onsequently, the major dietary pattern in Korea is rice-style, though the western pattern is increasing in the top income class, especially in metropolis areas. Therefore, to make a better dietary pattern, we should develop and spread low-priced recipes of various side dishes and teach financial skills such as ability to make a food budget for lower income classes. Also, we should emphasize the importance of the balance between meat and vegetables and traditional diet and western diet for the top income class, especially in the metropolis areas.

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[English]
An Assessment of Socioeconomic Status and Physical Health Status of the Middle-aged Adults in Gangwha County: Eun Mi Kim, Yoon jung Choi, Oh Jun Kweon; Korean J Community Nutr 2006;11(6):725-739. Published online December 31, 2006

Abstract PDF: This is study was performed to assess socioeconomic status and physical health status of middle-aged men (40's~60's) in Ganghwa country. We interviewed 1,267 middle-aged men (602 male, 665 female) by trained interviewers using structured questionnaires including demographic information, general health status, and anthropometric measurements. And all the data were analyzed by chi-square test, Student's t-test and one-way ANOVA using SPSS 12.0 version at p<0.05. These results were that males were higher than females in educational levels (p=0.000) and most of them decreased according to age in educational levels (p=0.000) and family income (p=0.000), and prevalence of chronic diseases (p=0.000): stomach-duodenum disease, fracture, arthritis, or hypertension. They took to the health information on TV and radio and their health managing methods were exercise and walking and resting and diet regulation. Body Mass Index (BMI) was decreased in older males (p=0.024) but increased in older females (p=0.001). In females, obesity prevalence of 40's, 50's and 60's was 31.3%, 49.7% and 48.0%, respectively. Waist circumference was the highest in 50's males (p=0.015), but hip circumference was the highest in 50's females (p=0.015). Waist-hip ratio (WHR) increased in older males (p=0.028) and females (p=0.000). In spite of the subjects were engaged in agriculture and fishery and had desirable lifestyles, obesity rate especially abdominal obesity, was the serious problem. Socioeconomic status, especially education and income were related to SRH (p=0.006, p=0.000), chronic disease (p=0.000) and BMI (p=0.028, p=0.000). Therefore, it is necessary that the public health policy and nutrition education programs to alter lifestyles and to improve health preservation and health promotion in the farming and fishing communities.

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[English]
Food and Nutrient Consumption Patterns of the Korean Adult Population by Income Level - 2001 National Health and Nutrition Survey: Bok Hee Kim, Joung Won Lee, Yoonna Lee, Haeng Shin Lee, Young Ai Jang, Cho il Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2005;10(6):952-962. Published online December 31, 2005

Abstract PDF: To explore the relationship between economic status and food and nutrient intake patterns, the 2001 National Health and Nutrition Survey result was analyzed. Dietary intake data of 6,978 Korean adults of 20 years and older who participated in the 2001 National Health and Nutrition Survey were used along with their demographic data. Economic status of the subjects was classified into the following 4 groups based on the self-reported average monthly income of household with reference to the minimum monthly living expenses (MLE) in 2001: low<100% MLE < or = middle<200% MLE < or = high<300% MLE < or = higher. Individuals in the higher income class had significantly higher mean intake for most of the nutrients including energy, protein, carbohydrate, fat, calcium, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C, and a higher percentage of energy intake from fat. In addition, they consumed more animal foods including meats, eggs, fish/shellfish, milk/dairy products and fats. On the other hand, the mean intakes of individuals in the lower economic class for calcium, vitamin A, and riboflavin were lower than 75% of RDAs. And, there was a predominant difference in contribution of fat to total energy intake among the groups of different economic status. These results showed that household income is an important factor influencing the food and nutrient intake patterns of the Korean adult population. Although individuals at different age classes may respond differently to a change in economic status, developing and implementing nutrition policy and intervention programs for those nutritionally vulnerable groups should consider the economic status as an important factor to customize and differentiate the content of the program.

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[English]
Food and Nutrient Consumption Patterns of Korean Adults by Socioeconomic Status: Youngok Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2001;6(4):645-656. Published online October 31, 2001

Abstract PDF: The relationship between socio-economic status and food and nutrient consumption patterns was studied in 7,370 Koreans aged 20 years and older in the 1995 Korean Health and Nutrition Survey. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of rapid economic growth on food and nutrient consumption for Korean adults in the last 30 years. Monthly household income, and individual's educational level and occupation were chosen as variables of socio-economic status for individuals. A one day 24 hour recall method was used for the dietary survey. One way analysis of varience was adopted to test tole association between socio-economic variables and food and nutrient consumption patterns. Individuals who had a high socio-economic status had significantly higher daily intake of most of the nutrients including calcium, vitamin A, vitamin B2 which reached above the recommended dietary allowances(RDA) and a higher percentage energy consumption from fat. In addition, individual who belonged to a low socio-economic status consumed less animal foods, including meat, egg, milk and consumed low proportion of energy from fat. The results suggest that in spite of rapid economic growth during the last 30 years in Korea, individuals who belonged to low socio-economic status categories are still nutritionally vulnerable. Among the socio-economic variables, income and education except occupation were the influential factors on the food and nutrient consumption of Koreans. Therefore, nutrition policy should focus on influencing the dietary patterns of lower social class individuals to improve the health status of the population as a whole.

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[English]
The Effect of Parental Socioeconomic Status on the Nutrient Intake of Urban and Rural Adolescents: Mikyung Kim, Moran Ki, Kumnyu Bang, Kirang Kim, Boyoul Choi, Youngjun Kwon, Sangsun Lee, Chan Kim, Yunju Kang; Korean J Community Nutr 1998;3(4):542-555. Published online October 31, 1998

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to assess the nutrient intake patterns among urban and rural adolescents and to investigate the effects due to parent's socioeconomic status and other factors, such as mother's job, family type and regular exercise on that pattern. 2,455 middle and high school students living in Seoul and Yangpong, Kyounffi-Do participated in a self-administered questionnaire that was used to collect data. The one-day dietary intake was surveyed through a 24-hour recall method. The factors significantly different between urban and rural adolescents according to monthly income, parent's education level, mother's job, family type and exercise. Income, the parents' education level and regular exercise were associated with the patterns of nutrient intakes as a percent of the RDA. So, when adjusted for parental income, the father's and mother's education level and regular exercise, there were no signifcant differences within the patterns of nutritional intake between urban and rural adolescents. The results provided the information regarding the determinants of nutrient status among adolescents and were expected to be helpful for planning school health promotion programs.

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