1서울대학교 생활과학대학 식품영양학과, 대학원생
2서울대학교 생활과학대학 식품영양학과, 박사
3서울대학교 생활과학대학 식품영양학과, 교수
4서울대학교 생활과학연구소, 교수
5서울대학교 국가미래전략원, 교수
1Graduate Student, Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
2PhD, Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
3Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
4Professor, Research Institute of Human Ecology, College of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
5Professor, Institute for Future Strategy, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
© 2024 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of Interest
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
Funding
This work was supported by the Institute for Future Strategy, Seoul National University.
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in “KNHANES” at https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr/knhanes/.
Variables | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 11.4 ± 3.4 | 11.4 ± 3.3 | 11.4 ± 3.3 |
Sex | |||
Boys | 1,746 (51.7) | 646 (53.3) | 335 (53.3) |
Girls | 1,631 (48.3) | 565 (46.7) | 294 (46.7) |
School attended | |||
Elementary school | 2,003 (59.3) | 720 (59.5) | 374 (59.5) |
Middle school | 754 (22.3) | 281 (23.2) | 149 (23.7) |
High school | 620 (18.4) | 210 (17.3) | 106 (16.9) |
Household income1) | |||
Low | 284 (8.4) | 80 (6.6) | 43 (6.8) |
Mid-low | 881 (26.1) | 343 (28.3) | 183 (29.1) |
Mid-high | 1,129 (33.4) | 430 (35.5) | 219 (34.8) |
High | 1,083 (32.1) | 358 (29.6) | 184 (29.3) |
Residential area | |||
Dong | 2,870 (85.0) | 1,021 (84.3) | 520 (82.7) |
Eup/myeon | 507 (15.0) | 190 (15.7) | 109 (17.3) |
BMI2) (kg/m2) | 19.4 ± 4.1 | 20.1 ± 4.3 | 19.8 ± 4.4 |
Height2) (cm) | 149.1 ± 17.2 | 149.8 ± 16.9 | 150.3 ± 17.1 |
Weight2) (kg) | 44.8 ± 17.0 | 46.9 ± 17.8 | 46.5 ± 17.9 |
n (%) or Mean ± SD.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; BMI, body mass index.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Anthropometric measures of a few participants were not measured: BMI (n = 12); height (n = 9); weight (n = 11).
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Difference2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Difference3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | All | 1,987.4 ± 18.1 | 1,844.2 ± 27.2 | 1,826.2 ± 29.8 | −143.2 | < 0.001 | −18.0 | 0.655 |
Low | 1,891.0 ± 50.5 | 1,511.9 ± 72.6 | 1,678.7 ± 127.6 | −379.1 | < 0.001 | 166.8 | 0.259 | |
Mid-low | 1,968.4 ± 37.3 | 1,811.9 ± 47.7 | 1,803.0 ± 55.8 | −156.5 | 0.010 | −8.9 | 0.903 | |
Mid-high | 1,990.0 ± 26.2 | 1,906.3 ± 39.4 | 1,858.8 ± 47.2 | −83.8 | 0.077 | −47.5 | 0.438 | |
High | 2,031.9 ± 29.7 | 1,870.6 ± 36.2 | 1,845.6 ± 50.5 | −161.2 | 0.001 | −25.0 | 0.688 | |
Total energy intake at school5) (kcal/day) | All | 376.6 ± 15.5 | 215.7 ± 18.3 | 370.3 ± 26.4 | −160.9 | < 0.001 | 154.6 | < 0.001 |
Low | 410.1 ± 41.2 | 208.3 ± 42.5 | 349.0 ± 69.6 | −201.8 | 0.001 | 140.7 | 0.085 | |
Mid-low | 390.4 ± 27.1 | 203.1 ± 25.0 | 373.6 ± 48.3 | −187.4 | < 0.001 | 170.5 | 0.002 | |
Mid-high | 364.5 ± 20.7 | 224.9 ± 25.0 | 349.4 ± 39.7 | −139.6 | < 0.001 | 124.5 | 0.008 | |
High | 368.5 ± 28.1 | 217.0 ± 33.4 | 391.3 ± 45.0 | −151.5 | 0.001 | 174.3 | 0.002 | |
Total energy intake at home5) (kcal/day) | All | 1,250.7 ± 19.0 | 1,430.7 ± 32.0 | 1,267.2 ± 32.8 | 180.1 | < 0.001 | −163.5 | < 0.001 |
Low | 1,192.7 ± 61.3 | 1,194.0 ± 69.2 | 1,215.1 ± 127.6 | 1.3 | 0.989 | 21.1 | 0.885 | |
Mid-low | 1,250.7 ± 38.9 | 1,417.0 ± 50.9 | 1,243.5 ± 65.6 | 166.3 | 0.010 | −173.6 | 0.036 | |
Mid-high | 1,230.1 ± 28.0 | 1,494.1 ± 47.9 | 1,289.8 ± 60.8 | 264.0 | < 0.001 | −204.3 | 0.008 | |
High | 1,288.0 ± 30.8 | 1,421.3 ± 49.4 | 1,279.3 ± 45.6 | 133.3 | 0.023 | −142.0 | 0.036 | |
Total energy intake at restaurants5) (kcal/day) | All | 253.5 ± 12.5 | 147.5 ± 12.8 | 137.4 ± 18.6 | −105.9 | < 0.001 | −10.2 | 0.652 |
Low | 185.9 ± 31.1 | 85.0 ± 34.7 | 108.1 ± 35.0 | −100.9 | 0.033 | 23.1 | 0.638 | |
Mid-low | 221.8 ± 23.8 | 142.9 ± 22.6 | 118.5 ± 29.9 | −78.9 | 0.015 | −24.4 | 0.513 | |
Mid-high | 283.2 ± 20.3 | 129.6 ± 20.4 | 177.5 ± 34.5 | −153.7 | < 0.001 | 48.0 | 0.229 | |
High | 271.2 ± 22.7 | 184.0 ± 29.0 | 116.8 ± 37.2 | −87.1 | 0.019 | −67.3 | 0.155 | |
Total energy intake at other places5,6) (kcal/day) | All | 106.7 ± 7.4 | 50.2 ± 10.0 | 51.3 ± 9.5 | −56.5 | < 0.001 | 1.0 | 0.942 |
Low | 102.4 ± 18.7 | 24.6 ± 10.5 | 6.6 ± 5.2 | −77.7 | < 0.001 | −18.1 | 0.113 | |
Mid-low | 105.4 ± 12.0 | 48.9 ± 13.9 | 67.5 ± 27.2 | −56.5 | 0.002 | 18.6 | 0.537 | |
Mid-high | 112.2 ± 13.8 | 57.7 ± 19.8 | 42.1 ± 12.0 | −54.5 | 0.022 | −15.7 | 0.501 | |
High | 104.2 ± 11.8 | 48.3 ± 9.2 | 58.2 ± 15.0 | −55.9 | < 0.001 | 10.0 | 0.571 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
5)Participants reporting zero energy intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis.
6)Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Difference2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Difference3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Total carbohydrate intake (g/day) | All | 297.1 ± 2.8 | 268.3 ± 4.1 | 260.7 ± 4.6 | −28.9 | < 0.001 | −7.6 | 0.218 |
Low | 292.5 ± 8.2 | 237.5 ± 12.1 | 242.7 ± 23.3 | −55.1 | < 0.001 | 5.2 | 0.843 | |
Mid-low | 295.0 ± 6.0 | 263.9 ± 7.4 | 253.4 ± 8.2 | −31.1 | 0.001 | −10.5 | 0.340 | |
Mid-high | 295.3 ± 4.4 | 275.3 ± 6.1 | 263.4 ± 7.1 | −20.0 | 0.008 | −11.9 | 0.202 | |
High | 302.5 ± 4.2 | 270.7 ± 5.2 | 268.4 ± 8.0 | −31.9 | < 0.001 | −2.3 | 0.813 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at school5) (g/day) | All | 57.9 ± 2.4 | 34.2 ± 2.9 | 55.1 ± 3.9 | −23.7 | < 0.001 | 20.9 | < 0.001 |
Low | 63.7 ± 6.6 | 33.4 ± 6.9 | 51.6 ± 10.7 | −30.3 | 0.002 | 18.2 | 0.155 | |
Mid-low | 59.7 ± 4.2 | 31.7 ± 4.0 | 54.8 ± 6.7 | −28.0 | < 0.001 | 23.1 | 0.003 | |
Mid-high | 56.3 ± 3.2 | 36.4 ± 4.0 | 52.6 ± 5.9 | −19.9 | < 0.001 | 16.2 | 0.023 | |
High | 56.3 ± 4.2 | 33.8 ± 5.1 | 58.2 ± 6.6 | −22.5 | 0.001 | 24.3 | 0.004 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at home5) (g/day) | All | 187.6 ± 2.9 | 205.1 ± 4.6 | 179.5 ± 4.9 | 17.5 | < 0.001 | −25.6 | < 0.001 |
Low | 186.3 ± 9.9 | 186.8 ± 12.4 | 176.7 ± 22.6 | 0.6 | 0.971 | −10.1 | 0.696 | |
Mid-low | 188.7 ± 6.5 | 204.3 ± 8.3 | 171.0 ± 8.7 | 15.5 | 0.141 | −33.2 | 0.005 | |
Mid-high | 181.7 ± 4.2 | 211.6 ± 6.8 | 182.5 ± 9.5 | 29.9 | < 0.001 | −29.1 | 0.012 | |
High | 193.1 ± 4.5 | 202.6 ± 6.7 | 185.1 ± 6.9 | 9.4 | 0.247 | −17.5 | 0.070 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at restaurants5) (g/day) | All | 35.0 ± 1.6 | 21.6 ± 1.8 | 18.3 ± 2.3 | −13.4 | < 0.001 | −3.3 | 0.270 |
Low | 26.7 ± 4.5 | 12.6 ± 5.1 | 13.6 ± 4.6 | −14.1 | 0.040 | 1.0 | 0.884 | |
Mid-low | 29.9 ± 3.1 | 20.8 ± 3.2 | 17.0 ± 4.4 | −9.1 | 0.041 | −3.8 | 0.490 | |
Mid-high | 40.0 ± 2.9 | 18.8 ± 3.0 | 22.3 ± 4.0 | −21.2 | < 0.001 | 3.5 | 0.476 | |
High | 36.6 ± 2.8 | 27.2 ± 4.0 | 16.2 ± 4.8 | −9.4 | 0.052 | −10.9 | 0.080 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at other places5,6) (g/day) | All | 16.7 ± 1.2 | 7.4 ± 1.1 | 7.7 ± 1.4 | −9.3 | < 0.001 | 0.3 | 0.865 |
Low | 15.8 ± 2.8 | 4.6 ± 1.9 | 0.8 ± 0.8 | −11.2 | 0.001 | −3.8 | 0.055 | |
Mid-low | 16.6 ± 1.9 | 7.2 ± 1.8 | 10.6 ± 4.1 | −9.5 | < 0.001 | 3.4 | 0.439 | |
Mid-high | 17.3 ± 2.2 | 8.4 ± 2.2 | 6.0 ± 1.5 | −8.9 | 0.004 | −2.5 | 0.358 | |
High | 16.4 ± 1.8 | 7.1 ± 1.4 | 8.9 ± 2.1 | −9.4 | < 0.001 | 1.8 | 0.461 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
5)Participants reporting zero carbohydrate intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis.
6)Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Differencee2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Differencee3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Total fat intake (g/day) | All | 56.3 ± 0.8 | 54.7 ± 1.1 | 56.1 ± 1.4 | −1.6 | 0.252 | 1.4 | 0.427 |
Low | 49.7 ± 2.1 | 37.2 ± 2.9 | 49.8 ± 4.7 | −12.5 | 0.001 | 12.6 | 0.024 | |
Mid-low | 55.6 ± 1.6 | 54.5 ± 2.0 | 57.4 ± 2.3 | −1.1 | 0.660 | 2.9 | 0.335 | |
Mid-high | 57.2 ± 1.3 | 56.6 ± 1.9 | 57.2 ± 2.6 | −0.6 | 0.792 | 0.6 | 0.864 | |
High | 57.9 ± 1.6 | 56.1 ± 1.8 | 55.2 ± 2.4 | −1.8 | 0.463 | −1.0 | 0.748 | |
Total fat intake at school5) (g/day) | All | 9.6 ± 0.4 | 5.1 ± 0.5 | 10.3 ± 0.9 | −4.5 | < 0.001 | 5.2 | < 0.001 |
Low | 10.0 ± 1.0 | 4.4 ± 1.0 | 9.9 ± 2.1 | −5.6 | < 0.001 | 5.5 | 0.017 | |
Mid-low | 9.9 ± 0.7 | 4.8 ± 0.6 | 10.6 ± 1.6 | −5.1 | < 0.001 | 5.8 | 0.001 | |
Mid-high | 9.2 ± 0.6 | 5.0 ± 0.6 | 9.3 ± 1.2 | −4.2 | < 0.001 | 4.3 | 0.001 | |
High | 9.6 ± 0.8 | 5.6 ± 0.9 | 11.1 ± 1.6 | −4.0 | 0.001 | 5.6 | 0.003 | |
Total fat intake at home5) (g/day) | All | 35.5 ± 0.7 | 43.8 ± 1.3 | 39.4 ± 1.2 | 8.4 | < 0.001 | −4.4 | 0.012 |
Low | 31.0 ± 2.0 | 30.1 ± 2.4 | 36.3 ± 4.5 | −0.9 | 0.781 | 6.2 | 0.231 | |
Mid-low | 35.1 ± 1.3 | 43.7 ± 1.9 | 40.8 ± 2.7 | 8.6 | < 0.001 | −2.9 | 0.377 | |
Mid-high | 36.0 ± 1.2 | 46.3 ± 2.0 | 39.8 ± 2.3 | 10.3 | < 0.001 | −6.5 | 0.031 | |
High | 36.4 ± 1.2 | 43.9 ± 2.1 | 38.6 ± 1.9 | 7.5 | 0.002 | −5.4 | 0.061 | |
Total fat intake at restaurants5) (g/day) | All | 8.1 ± 0.5 | 4.1 ± 0.4 | 4.8 ± 0.8 | −4.0 | < 0.001 | 0.7 | 0.466 |
Low | 5.8 ± 1.1 | 2.3 ± 1.0 | 3.4 ± 1.3 | −3.4 | 0.022 | 1.1 | 0.516 | |
Mid-low | 7.4 ± 1.0 | 4.3 ± 0.8 | 3.8 ± 0.9 | −3.2 | 0.015 | −0.5 | 0.670 | |
Mid-high | 8.7 ± 0.8 | 3.4 ± 0.6 | 6.7 ± 1.6 | −5.3 | < 0.001 | 3.3 | 0.054 | |
High | 8.8 ± 1.2 | 5.0 ± 1.1 | 3.8 ± 1.7 | −3.8 | 0.019 | −1.2 | 0.551 | |
Total fat intake at other places5,6) (g/day) | All | 3.1 ± 0.2 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | −1.4 | 0.008 | −0.1 | 0.902 |
Low | 3.0 ± 0.6 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | −2.5 | < 0.001 | −0.2 | 0.476 | |
Mid-low | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 2.2 ± 1.0 | −1.5 | 0.042 | 0.5 | 0.642 | |
Mid-high | 3.3 ± 0.4 | 2.0 ± 1.0 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | −1.3 | 0.245 | −0.6 | 0.593 | |
High | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | −1.5 | 0.005 | 0.1 | 0.932 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
5)Participants reporting zero fat intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis.
6)Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Difference2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Difference3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Total protein intake (g/day) | All | 73.1 ± 0.8 | 69.8 ± 1.2 | 69.7 ± 1.4 | −3.4 | 0.022 | −0.1 | 0.975 |
Low | 68.4 ± 2.7 | 56.7 ± 3.0 | 65.0 ± 5.6 | −11.7 | 0.004 | 8.3 | 0.193 | |
Mid-low | 72.0 ± 1.6 | 66.4 ± 2.1 | 68.2 ± 3.1 | −5.6 | 0.034 | 1.8 | 0.637 | |
Mid-high | 73.4 ± 1.2 | 73.9 ± 1.8 | 72.6 ± 1.9 | 0.4 | 0.842 | −1.2 | 0.640 | |
High | 75.2 ± 1.5 | 70.7 ± 2.1 | 68.9 ± 1.9 | −4.5 | 0.084 | −1.9 | 0.521 | |
Total protein intake at school5) (g/day) | All | 14.8 ± 0.6 | 8.3 ± 0.7 | 14.3 ± 1.1 | −6.5 | < 0.001 | 6.0 | < 0.001 |
Low | 16.4 ± 1.8 | 8.9 ± 1.9 | 13.4 ± 2.9 | −7.5 | 0.005 | 4.5 | 0.192 | |
Mid-low | 15.6 ± 1.1 | 8.2 ± 1.1 | 14.6 ± 2.1 | −7.4 | < 0.001 | 6.5 | 0.005 | |
Mid-high | 14.1 ± 0.8 | 8.6 ± 1.0 | 13.8 ± 1.7 | −5.5 | < 0.001 | 5.2 | 0.009 | |
High | 14.3 ± 1.2 | 7.9 ± 1.3 | 14.6 ± 1.8 | −6.4 | < 0.001 | 6.7 | 0.003 | |
Total protein intake at home5) (g/day) | All | 45.3 ± 0.8 | 54.0 ± 1.3 | 48.7 ± 1.5 | 8.7 | < 0.001 | −5.3 | 0.008 |
Low | 42.2 ± 2.8 | 43.9 ± 2.5 | 45.5 ± 5.5 | 1.7 | 0.650 | 1.6 | 0.796 | |
Mid-low | 44.9 ± 1.6 | 51.6 ± 2.0 | 48.1 ± 3.4 | 6.8 | 0.008 | −3.6 | 0.360 | |
Mid-high | 44.8 ± 1.3 | 57.8 ± 2.1 | 50.5 ± 2.5 | 13.0 | < 0.001 | −7.3 | 0.026 | |
High | 46.8 ± 1.3 | 53.9 ± 2.3 | 48.0 ± 1.9 | 7.1 | 0.008 | −5.9 | 0.049 | |
Total protein intake at restaurants5) (g/day) | All | 10.2 ± 0.6 | 6.1 ± 0.6 | 5.3 ± 0.7 | −4.1 | < 0.001 | −0.8 | 0.374 |
Low | 6.8 ± 1.2 | 3.4 ± 1.6 | 5.8 ± 2.1 | −3.4 | 0.090 | 2.4 | 0.353 | |
Mid-low | 8.9 ± 1.0 | 5.3 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 1.1 | −3.5 | 0.009 | −1.2 | 0.401 | |
Mid-high | 11.1 ± 0.9 | 5.9 ± 1.1 | 6.9 ± 1.5 | −5.2 | < 0.001 | 1.0 | 0.580 | |
High | 11.3 ± 1.1 | 7.5 ± 1.2 | 4.4 ± 1.3 | −3.8 | 0.022 | −3.2 | 0.078 | |
Total protein intake at other places5), 6) (g/day) | All | 3.0 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 1.5 ± 0.3 | −1.6 | < 0.001 | 0.1 | 0.802 |
Low | 3.1 ± 0.7 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | −2.5 | 0.001 | −0.3 | 0.501 | |
Mid-low | 2.6 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | −1.4 | 0.010 | 0.1 | 0.936 | |
Mid-high | 3.4 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | −1.9 | 0.019 | −0.1 | 0.912 | |
High | 2.7 ± 0.4 | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 1.9 ± 0.8 | −1.4 | 0.012 | 0.5 | 0.528 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
5)Participants reporting zero protein intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis.
6)Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Difference2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Difference3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Steamed rice (kcal/day) | Total | 475.4 ± 8.1 | 417.4 ± 11.1 | 379.1 ± 13.4 | −58.0 | < 0.001 | −38.3 | 0.028 |
Low | 535.9 ± 29.5 | 524.0 ± 47.8 | 417.9 ± 56.5 | −11.9 | 0.833 | −106.1 | 0.153 | |
Mid-low | 483.0 ± 14.8 | 426.1 ± 20.4 | 361.8 ± 26.0 | −56.9 | 0.024 | −64.3 | 0.051 | |
Mid-high | 471.0 ± 13.1 | 410.7 ± 19.0 | 380.5 ± 19.8 | −60.3 | 0.009 | −30.3 | 0.268 | |
High | 456.6 ± 13.9 | 397.5 ± 19.1 | 385.4 ± 20.4 | −59.0 | 0.013 | −12.1 | 0.666 | |
Fried rice (kcal/day) | Total | 51.7 ± 3.8 | 52.9 ± 5.9 | 50.3 ± 7.4 | 1.2 | 0.866 | −2.5 | 0.788 |
Low | 53.4 ± 13.2 | 25.1 ± 12.1 | 16.9 ± 10.4 | −28.4 | 0.113 | −8.1 | 0.607 | |
Mid-low | 52.4 ± 7.1 | 39.9 ± 11.2 | 56.7 ± 14.3 | −12.5 | 0.343 | 16.8 | 0.355 | |
Mid-high | 53.5 ± 6.6 | 66.9 ± 10.5 | 36.5 ± 9.1 | 13.4 | 0.282 | −30.4 | 0.028 | |
High | 49.1 ± 5.7 | 53.9 ± 10.1 | 67.9 ± 16.0 | 4.8 | 0.681 | 14.0 | 0.460 | |
Ramen (kcal/day) | Total | 61.9 ± 3.7 | 69.6 ± 6.6 | 46.0 ± 7.2 | 7.7 | 0.311 | −23.7 | 0.015 |
Low | 74.1 ± 12.6 | 53.7 ± 15.9 | 4.3 ± 4.8 | −20.4 | 0.326 | −49.4 | 0.002 | |
Mid-low | 64.4 ± 7.5 | 70.2 ± 11.5 | 48.8 ± 14.1 | 5.7 | 0.678 | −21.4 | 0.238 | |
Mid-high | 53.6 ± 6.3 | 62.8 ± 9.6 | 41.7 ± 8.7 | 9.0 | 0.427 | −21.1 | 0.102 | |
High | 65.4 ± 6.1 | 79.6 ± 15.3 | 57.7 ± 14.4 | 14.6 | 0.381 | −22.4 | 0.292 | |
Hamburger/pizza/sandwich (kcal/day) | Total | 57.0 ± 4.2 | 45.2 ± 5.3 | 48.9 ± 9.1 | −11.8 | 0.081 | 3.7 | 0.727 |
Low | 58.9 ± 14.9 | 13.5 ± 10.1 | 77.8 ± 46.0 | −45.4 | 0.012 | 64.3 | 0.173 | |
Mid-low | 62.7 ± 9.7 | 50.8 ± 11.6 | 31.2 ± 14.0 | −12.0 | 0.423 | −19.6 | 0.280 | |
Mid-high | 54.7 ± 7.5 | 51.2 ± 9.9 | 65.8 ± 15.2 | −3.5 | 0.778 | 14.5 | 0.418 | |
High | 53.2 ± 6.2 | 39.9 ± 9.0 | 40.2 ± 12.0 | −13.3 | 0.225 | 0.3 | 0.987 | |
Bread (kcal/day) | Total | 95.4 ± 4.6 | 68.6 ± 6.1 | 94.6 ± 8.7 | −26.7 | < 0.001 | 26.0 | 0.015 |
Low | 84.6 ± 14.0 | 33.7 ± 8.1 | 86.2 ± 47.8 | −50.9 | 0.002 | 52.6 | 0.279 | |
Mid-low | 90.9 ± 9.5 | 72.7 ± 12.7 | 90.0 ± 17.5 | −18.2 | 0.243 | 17.3 | 0.420 | |
Mid-high | 104.4 ± 8.1 | 64.6 ± 9.2 | 89.1 ± 14.7 | −39.8 | 0.001 | 24.6 | 0.157 | |
High | 92.1 ± 8.1 | 76.7 ± 10.2 | 108.1 ± 16.9 | −15.3 | 0.241 | 31.4 | 0.112 | |
Snacks (kcal/day) | Total | 75.3 ± 3.1 | 63.6 ± 4.6 | 82.0 ± 8.7 | −11.7 | 0.035 | 18.4 | 0.061 |
Low | 50.5 ± 5.8 | 38.4 ± 10.0 | 43.8 ± 14.9 | −12.1 | 0.295 | 5.4 | 0.764 | |
Mid-low | 76.6 ± 6.7 | 59.6 ± 7.9 | 117.8 ± 23.4 | −17.0 | 0.100 | 58.2 | 0.018 | |
Mid-high | 81.6 ± 5.3 | 60.7 ± 6.3 | 65.1 ± 7.9 | −20.9 | 0.011 | 4.3 | 0.668 | |
High | 74.4 ± 5.3 | 75.1 ± 10.2 | 76.3 ± 14.8 | 0.8 | 0.947 | 1.2 | 0.949 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
Participants reporting zero intake of each selected grain-based food were included in the analysis.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Difference2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Difference3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Fried chicken (kcal/day) | Total | 79.6 ± 5.6 | 70.3 ± 7.6 | 65.2 ± 9.3 | −9.3 | 0.324 | −5.1 | 0.670 |
Low | 99.9 ± 22.7 | 49.5 ± 19.7 | 88.0 ± 51.8 | −50.3 | 0.105 | 38.5 | 0.489 | |
Mid-low | 82.2 ± 12.2 | 52.9 ± 11.5 | 72.0 ± 18.4 | −29.3 | 0.076 | 19.1 | 0.378 | |
Mid-high | 82.0 ± 9.4 | 63.7 ± 12.2 | 61.8 ± 13.9 | −18.3 | 0.232 | −1.9 | 0.918 | |
High | 67.4 ± 9.2 | 98.0 ± 17.7 | 57.7 ± 16.0 | 30.6 | 0.126 | −40.3 | 0.094 | |
Milk (kcal/day) | Total | 69.0 ± 2.4 | 53.8 ± 3.9 | 65.0 ± 6.5 | −15.3 | 0.001 | 11.1 | 0.143 |
Low | 60.1 ± 7.4 | 33.2 ± 9.2 | 46.0 ± 9.8 | −26.9 | 0.022 | 12.8 | 0.336 | |
Mid-low | 69.2 ± 4.2 | 60.8 ± 8.1 | 69.7 ± 9.8 | −8.4 | 0.356 | 8.9 | 0.488 | |
Mid-high | 68.3 ± 4.0 | 49.0 ± 5.8 | 57.5 ± 8.5 | −19.3 | 0.006 | 8.5 | 0.409 | |
High | 72.0 ± 4.7 | 57.0 ± 6.8 | 73.5 ± 11.6 | −15.1 | 0.067 | 16.5 | 0.219 | |
Ice cream (kcal/day) | Total | 52.1 ± 2.7 | 52.4 ± 5.0 | 37.5 ± 4.6 | 0.3 | 0.957 | −14.9 | 0.027 |
Low | 39.4 ± 8.1 | 22.2 ± 7.4 | 16.2 ± 7.1 | −17.4 | 0.116 | −6.0 | 0.553 | |
Mid-low | 53.9 ± 5.1 | 67.9 ± 9.5 | 29.0 ± 6.4 | 14.0 | 0.190 | −38.8 | 0.001 | |
Mid-high | 51.5 ± 4.5 | 41.2 ± 5.4 | 50.6 ± 9.5 | −10.3 | 0.144 | 9.4 | 0.392 | |
High | 54.8 ± 4.3 | 56.8 ± 9.7 | 34.5 ± 6.5 | 2.1 | 0.846 | −22.3 | 0.054 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
Participants reporting zero intake of each selected protein and dairy food were included in the analysis.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
Variables | Household income1) | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
Difference2) (before COVID-19 to period I) |
Difference3) (period I to period II) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value4) | Difference | P-value4) | |||||
Fruits (kcal/day) | Total | 68.5 ± 2.5 | 58.7 ± 4.1 | 62.6 ± 4.8 | −9.8 | 0.041 | 3.9 | 0.537 |
Low | 51.6 ± 5.8 | 31.2 ± 8.8 | 38.5 ± 8.2 | −20.5 | 0.053 | 7.3 | 0.545 | |
Mid-low | 67.7 ± 6.3 | 55.9 ± 6.3 | 66.0 ± 9.6 | −11.8 | 0.183 | 10.1 | 0.379 | |
Mid-high | 60.9 ± 3.6 | 57.4 ± 7.3 | 63.9 ± 8.6 | −3.5 | 0.668 | 6.5 | 0.570 | |
High | 82.8 ± 4.0 | 68.9 ± 7.5 | 64.9 ± 7.5 | −14.0 | 0.101 | −3.9 | 0.712 | |
Vegetables (kcal/day) | Total | 53.5 ± 1.1 | 56.1 ± 1.6 | 52.1 ± 1.8 | 2.6 | 0.184 | −4.1 | 0.097 |
Low | 53.1 ± 3.3 | 50.8 ± 5.5 | 54.9 ± 6.1 | −2.4 | 0.717 | 4.2 | 0.614 | |
Mid-low | 53.1 ± 2.1 | 52.0 ± 3.0 | 48.8 ± 3.0 | −1.0 | 0.777 | −3.3 | 0.434 | |
Mid-high | 53.9 ± 1.6 | 61.1 ± 2.9 | 50.3 ± 2.8 | 7.2 | 0.030 | −10.9 | 0.006 | |
High | 53.8 ± 1.5 | 55.4 ± 2.5 | 56.9 ± 4.1 | 1.6 | 0.587 | 1.5 | 0.751 | |
Meat5) (kcal/day) | Total | 273.4 ± 8.1 | 282.9 ± 9.9 | 282.1 ± 13.5 | 9.5 | 0.455 | −0.8 | 0.961 |
Low | 226.9 ± 20.1 | 230.2 ± 33.4 | 216.8 ± 37.7 | 3.3 | 0.935 | −13.4 | 0.791 | |
Mid-low | 260.7 ± 14.5 | 265.5 ± 19.5 | 316.7 ± 29.4 | 4.8 | 0.843 | 51.2 | 0.146 | |
Mid-high | 285.7 ± 13.5 | 300.1 ± 16.6 | 297.3 ± 19.4 | 14.4 | 0.494 | −2.8 | 0.912 | |
High | 287.6 ± 15.7 | 289.7 ± 17.1 | 248.3 ± 24.0 | 2.1 | 0.929 | −41.4 | 0.163 | |
Dairy (kcal/day) | Total | 164.8 ± 3.9 | 148.0 ± 6.7 | 152.2 ± 9.6 | −16.9 | 0.029 | 4.2 | 0.718 |
Low | 143.3 ± 11.9 | 115.6 ± 24.3 | 110.7 ± 21.9 | −27.8 | 0.309 | −4.9 | 0.881 | |
Mid-low | 160.6 ± 8.1 | 162.9 ± 12.8 | 149.8 ± 14.8 | 2.4 | 0.875 | −13.2 | 0.501 | |
Mid-high | 166.1 ± 6.8 | 135.6 ± 9.4 | 165.3 ± 19.1 | −30.5 | 0.008 | 29.7 | 0.164 | |
High | 172.7 ± 6.6 | 155.1 ± 11.6 | 149.2 ± 14.3 | −17.7 | 0.187 | −5.8 | 0.752 | |
Eggs (kcal/day) | Total | 48.8 ± 1.7 | 53.6 ± 2.6 | 58.5 ± 3.2 | 4.8 | 0.121 | 4.9 | 0.237 |
Low | 48.0 ± 5.6 | 37.2 ± 8.9 | 69.2 ± 13.7 | −10.7 | 0.312 | 32.0 | 0.053 | |
Mid-low | 52.5 ± 4.7 | 60.2 ± 5.5 | 49.4 ± 6.1 | 7.7 | 0.282 | −10.8 | 0.189 | |
Mid-high | 47.9 ± 2.8 | 55.0 ± 4.4 | 58.7 ± 4.9 | 7.1 | 0.170 | 3.8 | 0.569 | |
High | 47.3 ± 2.1 | 49.6 ± 4.4 | 64.7 ± 6.4 | 2.3 | 0.637 | 15.1 | 0.053 | |
Beverages (kcal/day) | Total | 71.6 ± 2.7 | 65.1 ± 4.1 | 64.2 ± 4.6 | −6.5 | 0.183 | −0.9 | 0.885 |
Low | 70.2 ± 7.8 | 65.5 ± 15.6 | 45.5 ± 11.2 | −4.8 | 0.787 | −20.0 | 0.298 | |
Mid-low | 71.5 ± 4.8 | 60.6 ± 6.1 | 69.5 ± 10.0 | −10.9 | 0.154 | 8.9 | 0.444 | |
Mid-high | 73.5 ± 4.7 | 68.9 ± 6.9 | 61.7 ± 8.5 | −4.6 | 0.578 | −7.2 | 0.509 | |
High | 70.0 ± 4.6 | 64.3 ± 6.4 | 66.2 ± 8.0 | −5.7 | 0.475 | 1.9 | 0.855 |
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex.
Participants reporting zero intake of each selected food group were included in the analysis.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I).
3)Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
4)P-values were computed using the t-test.
5)Meat includes red meat, white meat, and organ meat.
Household income1) | Variables | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | P-value2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Eating enough and diverse food | 108 (38.0) | 20 (25.0) | 15 (34.9) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 152 (53.5) | 43 (53.8) | 24 (55.8) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 24 (8.5) | 17 (21.3) | 4 (9.3) | ||
Mid-low | Eating enough and diverse food | 452 (51.3) | 197 (57.4) | 118 (64.5) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 410 (46.5) | 138 (40.2) | 64 (35.0) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 19 (2.2) | 8 (2.3) | 1 (0.5) | ||
Mid-high | Eating enough and diverse food | 690 (61.1) | 329 (76.5) | 166 (75.8) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 430 (38.1) | 97 (22.6) | 53 (24.2) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 9 (0.8) | 4 (0.9) | 0 (0.0) | ||
High | Eating enough and diverse food | 782 (72.4) | 294 (82.1) | 164 (89.1) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 297 (27.5) | 64 (17.9) | 20 (10.9) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 1 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
n (%).
The household food sufficiency measures of a few participants were missing (n = 3).
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
1)Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles.
2)P-values were calculated using analysis of the Fisher’s exact test.
3)Two questions were included; ‘Sometimes not enough to eat due to economic difficulties,’ ‘Often not enough to eat due to economic difficulties.’
Variables | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 11.4 ± 3.4 | 11.4 ± 3.3 | 11.4 ± 3.3 |
Sex | |||
Boys | 1,746 (51.7) | 646 (53.3) | 335 (53.3) |
Girls | 1,631 (48.3) | 565 (46.7) | 294 (46.7) |
School attended | |||
Elementary school | 2,003 (59.3) | 720 (59.5) | 374 (59.5) |
Middle school | 754 (22.3) | 281 (23.2) | 149 (23.7) |
High school | 620 (18.4) | 210 (17.3) | 106 (16.9) |
Household income |
|||
Low | 284 (8.4) | 80 (6.6) | 43 (6.8) |
Mid-low | 881 (26.1) | 343 (28.3) | 183 (29.1) |
Mid-high | 1,129 (33.4) | 430 (35.5) | 219 (34.8) |
High | 1,083 (32.1) | 358 (29.6) | 184 (29.3) |
Residential area | |||
Dong | 2,870 (85.0) | 1,021 (84.3) | 520 (82.7) |
Eup/myeon | 507 (15.0) | 190 (15.7) | 109 (17.3) |
BMI |
19.4 ± 4.1 | 20.1 ± 4.3 | 19.8 ± 4.4 |
Height |
149.1 ± 17.2 | 149.8 ± 16.9 | 150.3 ± 17.1 |
Weight |
44.8 ± 17.0 | 46.9 ± 17.8 | 46.5 ± 17.9 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Difference |
Difference |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | All | 1,987.4 ± 18.1 | 1,844.2 ± 27.2 | 1,826.2 ± 29.8 | −143.2 | < 0.001 | −18.0 | 0.655 |
Low | 1,891.0 ± 50.5 | 1,511.9 ± 72.6 | 1,678.7 ± 127.6 | −379.1 | < 0.001 | 166.8 | 0.259 | |
Mid-low | 1,968.4 ± 37.3 | 1,811.9 ± 47.7 | 1,803.0 ± 55.8 | −156.5 | 0.010 | −8.9 | 0.903 | |
Mid-high | 1,990.0 ± 26.2 | 1,906.3 ± 39.4 | 1,858.8 ± 47.2 | −83.8 | 0.077 | −47.5 | 0.438 | |
High | 2,031.9 ± 29.7 | 1,870.6 ± 36.2 | 1,845.6 ± 50.5 | −161.2 | 0.001 | −25.0 | 0.688 | |
Total energy intake at school |
All | 376.6 ± 15.5 | 215.7 ± 18.3 | 370.3 ± 26.4 | −160.9 | < 0.001 | 154.6 | < 0.001 |
Low | 410.1 ± 41.2 | 208.3 ± 42.5 | 349.0 ± 69.6 | −201.8 | 0.001 | 140.7 | 0.085 | |
Mid-low | 390.4 ± 27.1 | 203.1 ± 25.0 | 373.6 ± 48.3 | −187.4 | < 0.001 | 170.5 | 0.002 | |
Mid-high | 364.5 ± 20.7 | 224.9 ± 25.0 | 349.4 ± 39.7 | −139.6 | < 0.001 | 124.5 | 0.008 | |
High | 368.5 ± 28.1 | 217.0 ± 33.4 | 391.3 ± 45.0 | −151.5 | 0.001 | 174.3 | 0.002 | |
Total energy intake at home |
All | 1,250.7 ± 19.0 | 1,430.7 ± 32.0 | 1,267.2 ± 32.8 | 180.1 | < 0.001 | −163.5 | < 0.001 |
Low | 1,192.7 ± 61.3 | 1,194.0 ± 69.2 | 1,215.1 ± 127.6 | 1.3 | 0.989 | 21.1 | 0.885 | |
Mid-low | 1,250.7 ± 38.9 | 1,417.0 ± 50.9 | 1,243.5 ± 65.6 | 166.3 | 0.010 | −173.6 | 0.036 | |
Mid-high | 1,230.1 ± 28.0 | 1,494.1 ± 47.9 | 1,289.8 ± 60.8 | 264.0 | < 0.001 | −204.3 | 0.008 | |
High | 1,288.0 ± 30.8 | 1,421.3 ± 49.4 | 1,279.3 ± 45.6 | 133.3 | 0.023 | −142.0 | 0.036 | |
Total energy intake at restaurants |
All | 253.5 ± 12.5 | 147.5 ± 12.8 | 137.4 ± 18.6 | −105.9 | < 0.001 | −10.2 | 0.652 |
Low | 185.9 ± 31.1 | 85.0 ± 34.7 | 108.1 ± 35.0 | −100.9 | 0.033 | 23.1 | 0.638 | |
Mid-low | 221.8 ± 23.8 | 142.9 ± 22.6 | 118.5 ± 29.9 | −78.9 | 0.015 | −24.4 | 0.513 | |
Mid-high | 283.2 ± 20.3 | 129.6 ± 20.4 | 177.5 ± 34.5 | −153.7 | < 0.001 | 48.0 | 0.229 | |
High | 271.2 ± 22.7 | 184.0 ± 29.0 | 116.8 ± 37.2 | −87.1 | 0.019 | −67.3 | 0.155 | |
Total energy intake at other places |
All | 106.7 ± 7.4 | 50.2 ± 10.0 | 51.3 ± 9.5 | −56.5 | < 0.001 | 1.0 | 0.942 |
Low | 102.4 ± 18.7 | 24.6 ± 10.5 | 6.6 ± 5.2 | −77.7 | < 0.001 | −18.1 | 0.113 | |
Mid-low | 105.4 ± 12.0 | 48.9 ± 13.9 | 67.5 ± 27.2 | −56.5 | 0.002 | 18.6 | 0.537 | |
Mid-high | 112.2 ± 13.8 | 57.7 ± 19.8 | 42.1 ± 12.0 | −54.5 | 0.022 | −15.7 | 0.501 | |
High | 104.2 ± 11.8 | 48.3 ± 9.2 | 58.2 ± 15.0 | −55.9 | < 0.001 | 10.0 | 0.571 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Difference |
Difference |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Total carbohydrate intake (g/day) | All | 297.1 ± 2.8 | 268.3 ± 4.1 | 260.7 ± 4.6 | −28.9 | < 0.001 | −7.6 | 0.218 |
Low | 292.5 ± 8.2 | 237.5 ± 12.1 | 242.7 ± 23.3 | −55.1 | < 0.001 | 5.2 | 0.843 | |
Mid-low | 295.0 ± 6.0 | 263.9 ± 7.4 | 253.4 ± 8.2 | −31.1 | 0.001 | −10.5 | 0.340 | |
Mid-high | 295.3 ± 4.4 | 275.3 ± 6.1 | 263.4 ± 7.1 | −20.0 | 0.008 | −11.9 | 0.202 | |
High | 302.5 ± 4.2 | 270.7 ± 5.2 | 268.4 ± 8.0 | −31.9 | < 0.001 | −2.3 | 0.813 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at school |
All | 57.9 ± 2.4 | 34.2 ± 2.9 | 55.1 ± 3.9 | −23.7 | < 0.001 | 20.9 | < 0.001 |
Low | 63.7 ± 6.6 | 33.4 ± 6.9 | 51.6 ± 10.7 | −30.3 | 0.002 | 18.2 | 0.155 | |
Mid-low | 59.7 ± 4.2 | 31.7 ± 4.0 | 54.8 ± 6.7 | −28.0 | < 0.001 | 23.1 | 0.003 | |
Mid-high | 56.3 ± 3.2 | 36.4 ± 4.0 | 52.6 ± 5.9 | −19.9 | < 0.001 | 16.2 | 0.023 | |
High | 56.3 ± 4.2 | 33.8 ± 5.1 | 58.2 ± 6.6 | −22.5 | 0.001 | 24.3 | 0.004 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at home |
All | 187.6 ± 2.9 | 205.1 ± 4.6 | 179.5 ± 4.9 | 17.5 | < 0.001 | −25.6 | < 0.001 |
Low | 186.3 ± 9.9 | 186.8 ± 12.4 | 176.7 ± 22.6 | 0.6 | 0.971 | −10.1 | 0.696 | |
Mid-low | 188.7 ± 6.5 | 204.3 ± 8.3 | 171.0 ± 8.7 | 15.5 | 0.141 | −33.2 | 0.005 | |
Mid-high | 181.7 ± 4.2 | 211.6 ± 6.8 | 182.5 ± 9.5 | 29.9 | < 0.001 | −29.1 | 0.012 | |
High | 193.1 ± 4.5 | 202.6 ± 6.7 | 185.1 ± 6.9 | 9.4 | 0.247 | −17.5 | 0.070 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at restaurants |
All | 35.0 ± 1.6 | 21.6 ± 1.8 | 18.3 ± 2.3 | −13.4 | < 0.001 | −3.3 | 0.270 |
Low | 26.7 ± 4.5 | 12.6 ± 5.1 | 13.6 ± 4.6 | −14.1 | 0.040 | 1.0 | 0.884 | |
Mid-low | 29.9 ± 3.1 | 20.8 ± 3.2 | 17.0 ± 4.4 | −9.1 | 0.041 | −3.8 | 0.490 | |
Mid-high | 40.0 ± 2.9 | 18.8 ± 3.0 | 22.3 ± 4.0 | −21.2 | < 0.001 | 3.5 | 0.476 | |
High | 36.6 ± 2.8 | 27.2 ± 4.0 | 16.2 ± 4.8 | −9.4 | 0.052 | −10.9 | 0.080 | |
Total carbohydrate intake at other places |
All | 16.7 ± 1.2 | 7.4 ± 1.1 | 7.7 ± 1.4 | −9.3 | < 0.001 | 0.3 | 0.865 |
Low | 15.8 ± 2.8 | 4.6 ± 1.9 | 0.8 ± 0.8 | −11.2 | 0.001 | −3.8 | 0.055 | |
Mid-low | 16.6 ± 1.9 | 7.2 ± 1.8 | 10.6 ± 4.1 | −9.5 | < 0.001 | 3.4 | 0.439 | |
Mid-high | 17.3 ± 2.2 | 8.4 ± 2.2 | 6.0 ± 1.5 | −8.9 | 0.004 | −2.5 | 0.358 | |
High | 16.4 ± 1.8 | 7.1 ± 1.4 | 8.9 ± 2.1 | −9.4 | < 0.001 | 1.8 | 0.461 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Differencee |
Differencee |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Total fat intake (g/day) | All | 56.3 ± 0.8 | 54.7 ± 1.1 | 56.1 ± 1.4 | −1.6 | 0.252 | 1.4 | 0.427 |
Low | 49.7 ± 2.1 | 37.2 ± 2.9 | 49.8 ± 4.7 | −12.5 | 0.001 | 12.6 | 0.024 | |
Mid-low | 55.6 ± 1.6 | 54.5 ± 2.0 | 57.4 ± 2.3 | −1.1 | 0.660 | 2.9 | 0.335 | |
Mid-high | 57.2 ± 1.3 | 56.6 ± 1.9 | 57.2 ± 2.6 | −0.6 | 0.792 | 0.6 | 0.864 | |
High | 57.9 ± 1.6 | 56.1 ± 1.8 | 55.2 ± 2.4 | −1.8 | 0.463 | −1.0 | 0.748 | |
Total fat intake at school |
All | 9.6 ± 0.4 | 5.1 ± 0.5 | 10.3 ± 0.9 | −4.5 | < 0.001 | 5.2 | < 0.001 |
Low | 10.0 ± 1.0 | 4.4 ± 1.0 | 9.9 ± 2.1 | −5.6 | < 0.001 | 5.5 | 0.017 | |
Mid-low | 9.9 ± 0.7 | 4.8 ± 0.6 | 10.6 ± 1.6 | −5.1 | < 0.001 | 5.8 | 0.001 | |
Mid-high | 9.2 ± 0.6 | 5.0 ± 0.6 | 9.3 ± 1.2 | −4.2 | < 0.001 | 4.3 | 0.001 | |
High | 9.6 ± 0.8 | 5.6 ± 0.9 | 11.1 ± 1.6 | −4.0 | 0.001 | 5.6 | 0.003 | |
Total fat intake at home |
All | 35.5 ± 0.7 | 43.8 ± 1.3 | 39.4 ± 1.2 | 8.4 | < 0.001 | −4.4 | 0.012 |
Low | 31.0 ± 2.0 | 30.1 ± 2.4 | 36.3 ± 4.5 | −0.9 | 0.781 | 6.2 | 0.231 | |
Mid-low | 35.1 ± 1.3 | 43.7 ± 1.9 | 40.8 ± 2.7 | 8.6 | < 0.001 | −2.9 | 0.377 | |
Mid-high | 36.0 ± 1.2 | 46.3 ± 2.0 | 39.8 ± 2.3 | 10.3 | < 0.001 | −6.5 | 0.031 | |
High | 36.4 ± 1.2 | 43.9 ± 2.1 | 38.6 ± 1.9 | 7.5 | 0.002 | −5.4 | 0.061 | |
Total fat intake at restaurants |
All | 8.1 ± 0.5 | 4.1 ± 0.4 | 4.8 ± 0.8 | −4.0 | < 0.001 | 0.7 | 0.466 |
Low | 5.8 ± 1.1 | 2.3 ± 1.0 | 3.4 ± 1.3 | −3.4 | 0.022 | 1.1 | 0.516 | |
Mid-low | 7.4 ± 1.0 | 4.3 ± 0.8 | 3.8 ± 0.9 | −3.2 | 0.015 | −0.5 | 0.670 | |
Mid-high | 8.7 ± 0.8 | 3.4 ± 0.6 | 6.7 ± 1.6 | −5.3 | < 0.001 | 3.3 | 0.054 | |
High | 8.8 ± 1.2 | 5.0 ± 1.1 | 3.8 ± 1.7 | −3.8 | 0.019 | −1.2 | 0.551 | |
Total fat intake at other places |
All | 3.1 ± 0.2 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | −1.4 | 0.008 | −0.1 | 0.902 |
Low | 3.0 ± 0.6 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | −2.5 | < 0.001 | −0.2 | 0.476 | |
Mid-low | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 2.2 ± 1.0 | −1.5 | 0.042 | 0.5 | 0.642 | |
Mid-high | 3.3 ± 0.4 | 2.0 ± 1.0 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | −1.3 | 0.245 | −0.6 | 0.593 | |
High | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | −1.5 | 0.005 | 0.1 | 0.932 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Difference |
Difference |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Total protein intake (g/day) | All | 73.1 ± 0.8 | 69.8 ± 1.2 | 69.7 ± 1.4 | −3.4 | 0.022 | −0.1 | 0.975 |
Low | 68.4 ± 2.7 | 56.7 ± 3.0 | 65.0 ± 5.6 | −11.7 | 0.004 | 8.3 | 0.193 | |
Mid-low | 72.0 ± 1.6 | 66.4 ± 2.1 | 68.2 ± 3.1 | −5.6 | 0.034 | 1.8 | 0.637 | |
Mid-high | 73.4 ± 1.2 | 73.9 ± 1.8 | 72.6 ± 1.9 | 0.4 | 0.842 | −1.2 | 0.640 | |
High | 75.2 ± 1.5 | 70.7 ± 2.1 | 68.9 ± 1.9 | −4.5 | 0.084 | −1.9 | 0.521 | |
Total protein intake at school |
All | 14.8 ± 0.6 | 8.3 ± 0.7 | 14.3 ± 1.1 | −6.5 | < 0.001 | 6.0 | < 0.001 |
Low | 16.4 ± 1.8 | 8.9 ± 1.9 | 13.4 ± 2.9 | −7.5 | 0.005 | 4.5 | 0.192 | |
Mid-low | 15.6 ± 1.1 | 8.2 ± 1.1 | 14.6 ± 2.1 | −7.4 | < 0.001 | 6.5 | 0.005 | |
Mid-high | 14.1 ± 0.8 | 8.6 ± 1.0 | 13.8 ± 1.7 | −5.5 | < 0.001 | 5.2 | 0.009 | |
High | 14.3 ± 1.2 | 7.9 ± 1.3 | 14.6 ± 1.8 | −6.4 | < 0.001 | 6.7 | 0.003 | |
Total protein intake at home |
All | 45.3 ± 0.8 | 54.0 ± 1.3 | 48.7 ± 1.5 | 8.7 | < 0.001 | −5.3 | 0.008 |
Low | 42.2 ± 2.8 | 43.9 ± 2.5 | 45.5 ± 5.5 | 1.7 | 0.650 | 1.6 | 0.796 | |
Mid-low | 44.9 ± 1.6 | 51.6 ± 2.0 | 48.1 ± 3.4 | 6.8 | 0.008 | −3.6 | 0.360 | |
Mid-high | 44.8 ± 1.3 | 57.8 ± 2.1 | 50.5 ± 2.5 | 13.0 | < 0.001 | −7.3 | 0.026 | |
High | 46.8 ± 1.3 | 53.9 ± 2.3 | 48.0 ± 1.9 | 7.1 | 0.008 | −5.9 | 0.049 | |
Total protein intake at restaurants |
All | 10.2 ± 0.6 | 6.1 ± 0.6 | 5.3 ± 0.7 | −4.1 | < 0.001 | −0.8 | 0.374 |
Low | 6.8 ± 1.2 | 3.4 ± 1.6 | 5.8 ± 2.1 | −3.4 | 0.090 | 2.4 | 0.353 | |
Mid-low | 8.9 ± 1.0 | 5.3 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 1.1 | −3.5 | 0.009 | −1.2 | 0.401 | |
Mid-high | 11.1 ± 0.9 | 5.9 ± 1.1 | 6.9 ± 1.5 | −5.2 | < 0.001 | 1.0 | 0.580 | |
High | 11.3 ± 1.1 | 7.5 ± 1.2 | 4.4 ± 1.3 | −3.8 | 0.022 | −3.2 | 0.078 | |
Total protein intake at other places |
All | 3.0 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 1.5 ± 0.3 | −1.6 | < 0.001 | 0.1 | 0.802 |
Low | 3.1 ± 0.7 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | −2.5 | 0.001 | −0.3 | 0.501 | |
Mid-low | 2.6 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | −1.4 | 0.010 | 0.1 | 0.936 | |
Mid-high | 3.4 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | −1.9 | 0.019 | −0.1 | 0.912 | |
High | 2.7 ± 0.4 | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 1.9 ± 0.8 | −1.4 | 0.012 | 0.5 | 0.528 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Difference |
Difference |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Steamed rice (kcal/day) | Total | 475.4 ± 8.1 | 417.4 ± 11.1 | 379.1 ± 13.4 | −58.0 | < 0.001 | −38.3 | 0.028 |
Low | 535.9 ± 29.5 | 524.0 ± 47.8 | 417.9 ± 56.5 | −11.9 | 0.833 | −106.1 | 0.153 | |
Mid-low | 483.0 ± 14.8 | 426.1 ± 20.4 | 361.8 ± 26.0 | −56.9 | 0.024 | −64.3 | 0.051 | |
Mid-high | 471.0 ± 13.1 | 410.7 ± 19.0 | 380.5 ± 19.8 | −60.3 | 0.009 | −30.3 | 0.268 | |
High | 456.6 ± 13.9 | 397.5 ± 19.1 | 385.4 ± 20.4 | −59.0 | 0.013 | −12.1 | 0.666 | |
Fried rice (kcal/day) | Total | 51.7 ± 3.8 | 52.9 ± 5.9 | 50.3 ± 7.4 | 1.2 | 0.866 | −2.5 | 0.788 |
Low | 53.4 ± 13.2 | 25.1 ± 12.1 | 16.9 ± 10.4 | −28.4 | 0.113 | −8.1 | 0.607 | |
Mid-low | 52.4 ± 7.1 | 39.9 ± 11.2 | 56.7 ± 14.3 | −12.5 | 0.343 | 16.8 | 0.355 | |
Mid-high | 53.5 ± 6.6 | 66.9 ± 10.5 | 36.5 ± 9.1 | 13.4 | 0.282 | −30.4 | 0.028 | |
High | 49.1 ± 5.7 | 53.9 ± 10.1 | 67.9 ± 16.0 | 4.8 | 0.681 | 14.0 | 0.460 | |
Ramen (kcal/day) | Total | 61.9 ± 3.7 | 69.6 ± 6.6 | 46.0 ± 7.2 | 7.7 | 0.311 | −23.7 | 0.015 |
Low | 74.1 ± 12.6 | 53.7 ± 15.9 | 4.3 ± 4.8 | −20.4 | 0.326 | −49.4 | 0.002 | |
Mid-low | 64.4 ± 7.5 | 70.2 ± 11.5 | 48.8 ± 14.1 | 5.7 | 0.678 | −21.4 | 0.238 | |
Mid-high | 53.6 ± 6.3 | 62.8 ± 9.6 | 41.7 ± 8.7 | 9.0 | 0.427 | −21.1 | 0.102 | |
High | 65.4 ± 6.1 | 79.6 ± 15.3 | 57.7 ± 14.4 | 14.6 | 0.381 | −22.4 | 0.292 | |
Hamburger/pizza/sandwich (kcal/day) | Total | 57.0 ± 4.2 | 45.2 ± 5.3 | 48.9 ± 9.1 | −11.8 | 0.081 | 3.7 | 0.727 |
Low | 58.9 ± 14.9 | 13.5 ± 10.1 | 77.8 ± 46.0 | −45.4 | 0.012 | 64.3 | 0.173 | |
Mid-low | 62.7 ± 9.7 | 50.8 ± 11.6 | 31.2 ± 14.0 | −12.0 | 0.423 | −19.6 | 0.280 | |
Mid-high | 54.7 ± 7.5 | 51.2 ± 9.9 | 65.8 ± 15.2 | −3.5 | 0.778 | 14.5 | 0.418 | |
High | 53.2 ± 6.2 | 39.9 ± 9.0 | 40.2 ± 12.0 | −13.3 | 0.225 | 0.3 | 0.987 | |
Bread (kcal/day) | Total | 95.4 ± 4.6 | 68.6 ± 6.1 | 94.6 ± 8.7 | −26.7 | < 0.001 | 26.0 | 0.015 |
Low | 84.6 ± 14.0 | 33.7 ± 8.1 | 86.2 ± 47.8 | −50.9 | 0.002 | 52.6 | 0.279 | |
Mid-low | 90.9 ± 9.5 | 72.7 ± 12.7 | 90.0 ± 17.5 | −18.2 | 0.243 | 17.3 | 0.420 | |
Mid-high | 104.4 ± 8.1 | 64.6 ± 9.2 | 89.1 ± 14.7 | −39.8 | 0.001 | 24.6 | 0.157 | |
High | 92.1 ± 8.1 | 76.7 ± 10.2 | 108.1 ± 16.9 | −15.3 | 0.241 | 31.4 | 0.112 | |
Snacks (kcal/day) | Total | 75.3 ± 3.1 | 63.6 ± 4.6 | 82.0 ± 8.7 | −11.7 | 0.035 | 18.4 | 0.061 |
Low | 50.5 ± 5.8 | 38.4 ± 10.0 | 43.8 ± 14.9 | −12.1 | 0.295 | 5.4 | 0.764 | |
Mid-low | 76.6 ± 6.7 | 59.6 ± 7.9 | 117.8 ± 23.4 | −17.0 | 0.100 | 58.2 | 0.018 | |
Mid-high | 81.6 ± 5.3 | 60.7 ± 6.3 | 65.1 ± 7.9 | −20.9 | 0.011 | 4.3 | 0.668 | |
High | 74.4 ± 5.3 | 75.1 ± 10.2 | 76.3 ± 14.8 | 0.8 | 0.947 | 1.2 | 0.949 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Difference |
Difference |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Fried chicken (kcal/day) | Total | 79.6 ± 5.6 | 70.3 ± 7.6 | 65.2 ± 9.3 | −9.3 | 0.324 | −5.1 | 0.670 |
Low | 99.9 ± 22.7 | 49.5 ± 19.7 | 88.0 ± 51.8 | −50.3 | 0.105 | 38.5 | 0.489 | |
Mid-low | 82.2 ± 12.2 | 52.9 ± 11.5 | 72.0 ± 18.4 | −29.3 | 0.076 | 19.1 | 0.378 | |
Mid-high | 82.0 ± 9.4 | 63.7 ± 12.2 | 61.8 ± 13.9 | −18.3 | 0.232 | −1.9 | 0.918 | |
High | 67.4 ± 9.2 | 98.0 ± 17.7 | 57.7 ± 16.0 | 30.6 | 0.126 | −40.3 | 0.094 | |
Milk (kcal/day) | Total | 69.0 ± 2.4 | 53.8 ± 3.9 | 65.0 ± 6.5 | −15.3 | 0.001 | 11.1 | 0.143 |
Low | 60.1 ± 7.4 | 33.2 ± 9.2 | 46.0 ± 9.8 | −26.9 | 0.022 | 12.8 | 0.336 | |
Mid-low | 69.2 ± 4.2 | 60.8 ± 8.1 | 69.7 ± 9.8 | −8.4 | 0.356 | 8.9 | 0.488 | |
Mid-high | 68.3 ± 4.0 | 49.0 ± 5.8 | 57.5 ± 8.5 | −19.3 | 0.006 | 8.5 | 0.409 | |
High | 72.0 ± 4.7 | 57.0 ± 6.8 | 73.5 ± 11.6 | −15.1 | 0.067 | 16.5 | 0.219 | |
Ice cream (kcal/day) | Total | 52.1 ± 2.7 | 52.4 ± 5.0 | 37.5 ± 4.6 | 0.3 | 0.957 | −14.9 | 0.027 |
Low | 39.4 ± 8.1 | 22.2 ± 7.4 | 16.2 ± 7.1 | −17.4 | 0.116 | −6.0 | 0.553 | |
Mid-low | 53.9 ± 5.1 | 67.9 ± 9.5 | 29.0 ± 6.4 | 14.0 | 0.190 | −38.8 | 0.001 | |
Mid-high | 51.5 ± 4.5 | 41.2 ± 5.4 | 50.6 ± 9.5 | −10.3 | 0.144 | 9.4 | 0.392 | |
High | 54.8 ± 4.3 | 56.8 ± 9.7 | 34.5 ± 6.5 | 2.1 | 0.846 | −22.3 | 0.054 |
Variables | Household income |
Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | Difference |
Difference |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Difference | P-value |
Difference | P-value |
|||||
Fruits (kcal/day) | Total | 68.5 ± 2.5 | 58.7 ± 4.1 | 62.6 ± 4.8 | −9.8 | 0.041 | 3.9 | 0.537 |
Low | 51.6 ± 5.8 | 31.2 ± 8.8 | 38.5 ± 8.2 | −20.5 | 0.053 | 7.3 | 0.545 | |
Mid-low | 67.7 ± 6.3 | 55.9 ± 6.3 | 66.0 ± 9.6 | −11.8 | 0.183 | 10.1 | 0.379 | |
Mid-high | 60.9 ± 3.6 | 57.4 ± 7.3 | 63.9 ± 8.6 | −3.5 | 0.668 | 6.5 | 0.570 | |
High | 82.8 ± 4.0 | 68.9 ± 7.5 | 64.9 ± 7.5 | −14.0 | 0.101 | −3.9 | 0.712 | |
Vegetables (kcal/day) | Total | 53.5 ± 1.1 | 56.1 ± 1.6 | 52.1 ± 1.8 | 2.6 | 0.184 | −4.1 | 0.097 |
Low | 53.1 ± 3.3 | 50.8 ± 5.5 | 54.9 ± 6.1 | −2.4 | 0.717 | 4.2 | 0.614 | |
Mid-low | 53.1 ± 2.1 | 52.0 ± 3.0 | 48.8 ± 3.0 | −1.0 | 0.777 | −3.3 | 0.434 | |
Mid-high | 53.9 ± 1.6 | 61.1 ± 2.9 | 50.3 ± 2.8 | 7.2 | 0.030 | −10.9 | 0.006 | |
High | 53.8 ± 1.5 | 55.4 ± 2.5 | 56.9 ± 4.1 | 1.6 | 0.587 | 1.5 | 0.751 | |
Meat |
Total | 273.4 ± 8.1 | 282.9 ± 9.9 | 282.1 ± 13.5 | 9.5 | 0.455 | −0.8 | 0.961 |
Low | 226.9 ± 20.1 | 230.2 ± 33.4 | 216.8 ± 37.7 | 3.3 | 0.935 | −13.4 | 0.791 | |
Mid-low | 260.7 ± 14.5 | 265.5 ± 19.5 | 316.7 ± 29.4 | 4.8 | 0.843 | 51.2 | 0.146 | |
Mid-high | 285.7 ± 13.5 | 300.1 ± 16.6 | 297.3 ± 19.4 | 14.4 | 0.494 | −2.8 | 0.912 | |
High | 287.6 ± 15.7 | 289.7 ± 17.1 | 248.3 ± 24.0 | 2.1 | 0.929 | −41.4 | 0.163 | |
Dairy (kcal/day) | Total | 164.8 ± 3.9 | 148.0 ± 6.7 | 152.2 ± 9.6 | −16.9 | 0.029 | 4.2 | 0.718 |
Low | 143.3 ± 11.9 | 115.6 ± 24.3 | 110.7 ± 21.9 | −27.8 | 0.309 | −4.9 | 0.881 | |
Mid-low | 160.6 ± 8.1 | 162.9 ± 12.8 | 149.8 ± 14.8 | 2.4 | 0.875 | −13.2 | 0.501 | |
Mid-high | 166.1 ± 6.8 | 135.6 ± 9.4 | 165.3 ± 19.1 | −30.5 | 0.008 | 29.7 | 0.164 | |
High | 172.7 ± 6.6 | 155.1 ± 11.6 | 149.2 ± 14.3 | −17.7 | 0.187 | −5.8 | 0.752 | |
Eggs (kcal/day) | Total | 48.8 ± 1.7 | 53.6 ± 2.6 | 58.5 ± 3.2 | 4.8 | 0.121 | 4.9 | 0.237 |
Low | 48.0 ± 5.6 | 37.2 ± 8.9 | 69.2 ± 13.7 | −10.7 | 0.312 | 32.0 | 0.053 | |
Mid-low | 52.5 ± 4.7 | 60.2 ± 5.5 | 49.4 ± 6.1 | 7.7 | 0.282 | −10.8 | 0.189 | |
Mid-high | 47.9 ± 2.8 | 55.0 ± 4.4 | 58.7 ± 4.9 | 7.1 | 0.170 | 3.8 | 0.569 | |
High | 47.3 ± 2.1 | 49.6 ± 4.4 | 64.7 ± 6.4 | 2.3 | 0.637 | 15.1 | 0.053 | |
Beverages (kcal/day) | Total | 71.6 ± 2.7 | 65.1 ± 4.1 | 64.2 ± 4.6 | −6.5 | 0.183 | −0.9 | 0.885 |
Low | 70.2 ± 7.8 | 65.5 ± 15.6 | 45.5 ± 11.2 | −4.8 | 0.787 | −20.0 | 0.298 | |
Mid-low | 71.5 ± 4.8 | 60.6 ± 6.1 | 69.5 ± 10.0 | −10.9 | 0.154 | 8.9 | 0.444 | |
Mid-high | 73.5 ± 4.7 | 68.9 ± 6.9 | 61.7 ± 8.5 | −4.6 | 0.578 | −7.2 | 0.509 | |
High | 70.0 ± 4.6 | 64.3 ± 6.4 | 66.2 ± 8.0 | −5.7 | 0.475 | 1.9 | 0.855 |
Household income |
Variables | Before COVID-19 (2016–2019) (n = 3,377) | During COVID-19 (period I, 2020–2021) (n = 1,211) | During COVID-19 (period II, 2022) (n = 629) | P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Eating enough and diverse food | 108 (38.0) | 20 (25.0) | 15 (34.9) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 152 (53.5) | 43 (53.8) | 24 (55.8) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties |
24 (8.5) | 17 (21.3) | 4 (9.3) | ||
Mid-low | Eating enough and diverse food | 452 (51.3) | 197 (57.4) | 118 (64.5) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 410 (46.5) | 138 (40.2) | 64 (35.0) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 19 (2.2) | 8 (2.3) | 1 (0.5) | ||
Mid-high | Eating enough and diverse food | 690 (61.1) | 329 (76.5) | 166 (75.8) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 430 (38.1) | 97 (22.6) | 53 (24.2) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 9 (0.8) | 4 (0.9) | 0 (0.0) | ||
High | Eating enough and diverse food | 782 (72.4) | 294 (82.1) | 164 (89.1) | < 0.001 |
Eating enough but not diverse food | 297 (27.5) | 64 (17.9) | 20 (10.9) | ||
Not enough to eat due to economic difficulties3) | 1 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
n (%) or Mean ± SD. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; BMI, body mass index. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Anthropometric measures of a few participants were not measured: BMI (n = 12); height (n = 9); weight (n = 11).
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II). Participants reporting zero energy intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis. Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II). Participants reporting zero carbohydrate intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis. Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II). Participants reporting zero fat intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis. Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II). Participants reporting zero protein intake at each location (school, home, restaurants, or other places) were included in the analysis. Other places included senior centers, temples, churches, and others.
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. Participants reporting zero intake of each selected grain-based food were included in the analysis. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. Participants reporting zero intake of each selected protein and dairy food were included in the analysis. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II).
Weighted mean ± SE, adjusted for age (years, continuous) and sex. Participants reporting zero intake of each selected food group were included in the analysis. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean before COVID-19 from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period I). Difference was calculated by subtracting the weighted mean during COVID-19 period I from the weighted mean during COVID-19 (period II). Meat includes red meat, white meat, and organ meat.
n (%). The household food sufficiency measures of a few participants were missing (n = 3). COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019. Monthly household income was divided by the square root of the household size and then categorized into 4 groups based on age and sex, with some adjustments made to quartiles. Two questions were included; ‘Sometimes not enough to eat due to economic difficulties,’ ‘Often not enough to eat due to economic difficulties.’