대전대학교 식품영양학과, 교수
Professor, Dept. of Food & Nutrition, Daejeon University, Daejeon, Korea
© 2023 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of Interest
There are no finance or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data Availability
The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly. Due to the sensitive nature of the research, supporting data is not available.
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 89) | No change (n = 113) | Increase (n = 125) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 2.91 ± 1.01 | 2.97 ± 0.94 | 2.79 ± 1.00 | 1.046 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 2.98 ± 0.09 | 2.97 ± 1.01 | 2.78 ± 0.96 | 1.652 |
| Hydration | 3.66 ± 1.03 | 3.74 ± 1.02 | 3.51 ± 1.13 | 1.452 |
| Healthy weight | 3.17ab ± 0.98 | 3.29b ± 0.87 | 2.87a ± 0.98 | 6.238** |
| Breakfast habit | 2.21a ± 1.28 | 2.60b ± 1.28 | 2.21a ± 1.24 | 3.555* |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.47 ± 0.74 | 3.40 ± 0.91 | 3.44 ± 0.93 | 0.181 |
| Individual serving | 3.44 ± 0.94 | 3.33 ± 0.95 | 3.28 ± 1.11 | 0.647 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.45 ± 1.14 | 3.48 ± 1.14 | 3.45 ± 1.22 | 0.023 |
| Local ingredients | 2.94 ± 1.00 | 2.89 ± 0.98 | 2.90 ± 1.04 | 0.066 |
| Total score | 28.24 ± 5.06 | 28.68 ± 5.93 | 27.23 ± 5.51 | 2.134 |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 38) | No change (n = 113) | Increase (n = 176) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 2.89 ± 1.01 | 3.04 ± 0.95 | 2.78 ± 0.99 | 2.434 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 2.92 ± 1.08 | 3.03 ± 0.91 | 2.81 ± 0.97 | 1.711 |
| Hydration | 3.68ab ± 1.07 | 3.90b ± 0.95 | 3.45a ± 1.10 | 6.506** |
| Healthy weight | 3.08ab ± 1.00 | 3.42b ± 0.88 | 2.89a ± 0.94 | 11.336*** |
| Breakfast habit | 2.26ab ± 1.35 | 2.70b ± 1.36 | 2.14a ± 1.15 | 7.073*** |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.47 ± 0.89 | 3.50 ± 0.81 | 3.38 ± 0.91 | 0.734 |
| Individual serving | 3.42 ± 1.08 | 3.34 ± 0.92 | 3.32 ± 1.05 | 0.144 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.50b ± 1.11 | 3.67b ± 1.10 | 3.31a ± 1.20 | 3.356* |
| Local ingredients | 3.05b ± 1.21 | 3.06b ± 0.96 | 2.78a ± 0.98 | 3.083* |
| Total score | 28.29ab ± 5.93 | 29.67b ± 5.73 | 26.88b ± 5.11 | 9.201*** |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 31) | No change (n = 129) | Increase (n = 167) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 3.23 ± 0.85 | 2.88 ± 0.95 | 2.83 ± 1.02 | 2.177 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 3.16 ± 0.90 | 2.94 ± 0.94 | 2.82 ± 0.99 | 1.813 |
| Hydration | 4.06b ± 0.73 | 3.68ab ± 1.01 | 3.51a ± 1.14 | 3.769* |
| Healthy weight | 3.32b ± 0.98 | 3.28ab ± 0.86 | 2.92a ± 1.00 | 6.374** |
| Breakfast habit | 2.55 ± 1.31 | 2.48 ± 1.24 | 2.20 ± 1.28 | 2.175 |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.58 ± 0.77 | 3.40 ± 0.88 | 3.44 ± 0.89 | 0.564 |
| Individual serving | 3.23 ± 0.96 | 3.36 ± 0.98 | 3.34 ± 1.05 | 0.234 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.77b ± 1.09 | 3.58ab ± 1.12 | 3.31a ± 1.20 | 3.340* |
| Local ingredients | 3.26 ± 1.00 | 2.95 ± 0.98 | 2.81 ± 1.02 | 2.755 |
| Total score | 30.16b ± 4.53 | 28.56ab ± 5.89 | 27.18a ± 5.34 | 4.921** |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 77) | No change (n = 133) | Increase (n = 117) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 2.99 ± 1.15 | 2.95 ± 0.88 | 2.75 ± 0.96 | 1.760 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 3.13b ± 0.91 | 2.98ab ± 0.93 | 2.66a ± 0.99 | 6.498** |
| Hydration | 3.77 ± 1.03 | 3.65 ± 1.06 | 3.53 ± 1.10 | 1.162 |
| Healthy weight | 3.31b ± 0.95 | 3.30b ± 0.87 | 2.73a ± 0.95 | 14.873*** |
| Breakfast habit | 2.22a ± 1.37 | 2.56b ± 1.29 | 2.19a ± 1.16 | 3.132* |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.51b ± 0.77 | 3.56b ± 0.84 | 3.24a ± 0.94 | 4.757** |
| Individual serving | 3.40 ± 0.96 | 3.42 ± 0.99 | 3.21 ± 1.06 | 1.622 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.65b ± 1.14 | 3.60b ± 1.11 | 3.17a ± 1.20 | 5.753** |
| Local ingredients | 2.84 ± 0.97 | 2.96 ± 0.99 | 2.90 ± 1.05 | 0.352 |
| Total score | 28.82b ± 4.87 | 28.98b ± 5.62 | 26.37a ± 5.59 | 8.279*** |
| Dietary guidelines |
Changes in dietary habits |
Total change | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Activity | Delivery food | Convenience food | Eat out | Regular meals | ||
| Balanced diet | -0.111* | -0.054 | -0.083 | -0.098 | 0.217** | -0.118* |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | -0.067 | -0.089 | -0.074 | -0.103 | 0.125* | -0.275** |
| Hydration | 0.016 | -0.064 | -0.143** | -0.145** | 0.016 | -0.144** |
| Healthy weight | 0.055 | -0.138* | -0.165** | -0.181** | 0.210** | -0.281** |
| Breakfast habit | -0.083 | -0.016 | -0.117* | -0.110* | 0.176** | -0.120* |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 0.024 | -0.012 | -0.056 | -0.022 | 0.085 | -0.135* |
| Individual serving | 0.012 | -0.061 | -0.026 | 0.018 | 0.097 | -0.071 |
| Limited alcohol | -0.009 | -0.002 | -0.104 | -0.014* | 0.033 | -0.176** |
| Local ingredients | -0.089 | -0.014 | -0.122* | -0.125* | 0.090 | -0.083 |
| Total score | -0.050 | -0.081 | -0.167** | -0.171** | 0.194** | -0.258** |
| Model |
Unstandardized coefficient |
Standardized coefficient |
T | F | R-square | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | SE | β | ||||
| (Constant) | 30.912 | 1.846 | 16.744*** | 7.532*** | 0.086 | |
| Delivery food | 0.234 | 0.326 | 0.045 | 0.718 | ||
| Convenience food | -1.060 | 0.371 | -0.181 | -2.855** | ||
| Eat out | -0.689 | 0.376 | -0.107 | -1.834 | ||
| Regular meals | 0.902 | 0.305 | 0.162 | 2.958** | ||
| Characteristics | Categories | |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | Man | 150 (45.9) |
| Woman | 177 (54.1) | |
| Age (years) | Average age | 22.21 ± 1.94 |
| Type of residence | Living with family | 85 (26.0) |
| Living alone | 151 (46.2) | |
| Dormitory | 91 (27.8) | |
| Allowance (thousands won) | < 300 | 45 (13.8) |
| 300-390 | 71 (21.7) | |
| 400-490 | 71 (21.7) | |
| 500-590 | 40 (12.2) | |
| ≥ 600 | 100 (30.6) | |
| Income spent on food (%) | < 20 | 24 (7.3) |
| 20-39 | 77 (23.5) | |
| 40-59 | 145 (44.3) | |
| 60-79 | 59 (18.0) | |
| ≥ 80 | 22 (6.7) | |
| Total | 327 (100.0) | |
| Frequency | Delivered food | Convenience food | Eat out | Home meal | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0-1 days/week | 174 (53.2) | 87 (26.6) | 125 (38.2) | 114 (34.9) | < 0.001 |
| 2-3 days/week | 133 (40.7) | 162 (49.5) | 131 (40.1) | 108 (33.0) | |
| 4-5 days/week | 14 (4.3) | 55 (16.8) | 64 (19.6) | 62 (19.0) | |
| 6-7 days/week | 6 (1.8) | 23 (7.0) | 7 (2.1) | 43 (13.1) | |
| Total | 327 (100.0) | 327 (100.0) | 327 (100.0) | 327 (100.0) |
| Items | |
|---|---|
| Changes in physical activity | 3.80 ± 0.92 |
| Changes in weight | 3.12 ± 0.78 |
| Changes in smartphone usage time | 3.02 ± 0.88 |
| Changes in intake of delivered food | 3.15 ± 1.06 |
| Changes in convenience food intake | 3.57 ± 0.95 |
| Changes in frequency of eating out | 3.54 ± 0.86 |
| Changes in regular meal habits | 2.86 ± 1.00 |
| Changes in frequency of skipping meals | 3.23 ± 0.90 |
| Changes in snacking habits | 3.31 ± 0.97 |
| Changes in late-night snacking | 3.13 ± 1.08 |
| Changes in beverage consumption | 3.43 ± 0.98 |
| Changes in alcohol consumption | 3.41 ± 1.08 |
| Changes in intake of fresh foods (vegetables, fruits, fish, meat, etc.) | 2.91 ± 0.94 |
| Changes in processed food intake | 3.61 ± 0.78 |
| Changes in high-fat, fried food intake | 3.44 ± 0.80 |
| Changes in sweet food consumption | 3.48 ± 0.91 |
| Occurrences of overeating | 3.10 ± 0.87 |
| Dietary guidelines | |
|---|---|
| 1. Balanced diet: consume a variety of foods every day, including grains, meat, fish, eggs, beans, milk, dairy products, fresh vegetables, and fruits | 2.89 ± 0.98 |
| 2. Less salt/sugar/oil: consume less salty, sweet, and oily foods | 2.90 ± 0.97 |
| 3. Hydration: drink plenty of water | 3.63 ± 1.07 |
| 4. Healthy weight: avoid overeating and maintain a healthy weight by increasing activity. | 3.10 ± 0.96 |
| 5. Breakfast habit: ensure to have breakfast daily | 2.35 ± 1.27 |
| 6. Safe food handling and preparation: prepare food hygienically and only in necessary quantities | 3.43 ± 0.87 |
| 7. Individual serving: eat separately using your own plates | 3.34 ± 1.01 |
| 8. Limited alcohol: drink alcohol in moderation | 3.46 ± 1.17 |
| 9. Local ingredients: enjoy a diet that incorporates local ingredients and is environmentally conscious | 2.91 ± 1.01 |
| Total score | 3.11 ± 1.03 |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 89) | No change (n = 113) | Increase (n = 125) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 2.91 ± 1.01 | 2.97 ± 0.94 | 2.79 ± 1.00 | 1.046 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 2.98 ± 0.09 | 2.97 ± 1.01 | 2.78 ± 0.96 | 1.652 |
| Hydration | 3.66 ± 1.03 | 3.74 ± 1.02 | 3.51 ± 1.13 | 1.452 |
| Healthy weight | 3.17ab ± 0.98 | 3.29b ± 0.87 | 2.87a ± 0.98 | 6.238 |
| Breakfast habit | 2.21a ± 1.28 | 2.60b ± 1.28 | 2.21a ± 1.24 | 3.555 |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.47 ± 0.74 | 3.40 ± 0.91 | 3.44 ± 0.93 | 0.181 |
| Individual serving | 3.44 ± 0.94 | 3.33 ± 0.95 | 3.28 ± 1.11 | 0.647 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.45 ± 1.14 | 3.48 ± 1.14 | 3.45 ± 1.22 | 0.023 |
| Local ingredients | 2.94 ± 1.00 | 2.89 ± 0.98 | 2.90 ± 1.04 | 0.066 |
| Total score | 28.24 ± 5.06 | 28.68 ± 5.93 | 27.23 ± 5.51 | 2.134 |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 38) | No change (n = 113) | Increase (n = 176) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 2.89 ± 1.01 | 3.04 ± 0.95 | 2.78 ± 0.99 | 2.434 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 2.92 ± 1.08 | 3.03 ± 0.91 | 2.81 ± 0.97 | 1.711 |
| Hydration | 3.68ab ± 1.07 | 3.90b ± 0.95 | 3.45a ± 1.10 | 6.506 |
| Healthy weight | 3.08ab ± 1.00 | 3.42b ± 0.88 | 2.89a ± 0.94 | 11.336 |
| Breakfast habit | 2.26ab ± 1.35 | 2.70b ± 1.36 | 2.14a ± 1.15 | 7.073 |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.47 ± 0.89 | 3.50 ± 0.81 | 3.38 ± 0.91 | 0.734 |
| Individual serving | 3.42 ± 1.08 | 3.34 ± 0.92 | 3.32 ± 1.05 | 0.144 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.50b ± 1.11 | 3.67b ± 1.10 | 3.31a ± 1.20 | 3.356 |
| Local ingredients | 3.05b ± 1.21 | 3.06b ± 0.96 | 2.78a ± 0.98 | 3.083 |
| Total score | 28.29ab ± 5.93 | 29.67b ± 5.73 | 26.88b ± 5.11 | 9.201 |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 31) | No change (n = 129) | Increase (n = 167) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 3.23 ± 0.85 | 2.88 ± 0.95 | 2.83 ± 1.02 | 2.177 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 3.16 ± 0.90 | 2.94 ± 0.94 | 2.82 ± 0.99 | 1.813 |
| Hydration | 4.06b ± 0.73 | 3.68ab ± 1.01 | 3.51a ± 1.14 | 3.769 |
| Healthy weight | 3.32b ± 0.98 | 3.28ab ± 0.86 | 2.92a ± 1.00 | 6.374 |
| Breakfast habit | 2.55 ± 1.31 | 2.48 ± 1.24 | 2.20 ± 1.28 | 2.175 |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.58 ± 0.77 | 3.40 ± 0.88 | 3.44 ± 0.89 | 0.564 |
| Individual serving | 3.23 ± 0.96 | 3.36 ± 0.98 | 3.34 ± 1.05 | 0.234 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.77b ± 1.09 | 3.58ab ± 1.12 | 3.31a ± 1.20 | 3.340 |
| Local ingredients | 3.26 ± 1.00 | 2.95 ± 0.98 | 2.81 ± 1.02 | 2.755 |
| Total score | 30.16b ± 4.53 | 28.56ab ± 5.89 | 27.18a ± 5.34 | 4.921 |
| Dietary guidelines | Decrease (n = 77) | No change (n = 133) | Increase (n = 117) | F |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balanced diet | 2.99 ± 1.15 | 2.95 ± 0.88 | 2.75 ± 0.96 | 1.760 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | 3.13b ± 0.91 | 2.98ab ± 0.93 | 2.66a ± 0.99 | 6.498 |
| Hydration | 3.77 ± 1.03 | 3.65 ± 1.06 | 3.53 ± 1.10 | 1.162 |
| Healthy weight | 3.31b ± 0.95 | 3.30b ± 0.87 | 2.73a ± 0.95 | 14.873 |
| Breakfast habit | 2.22a ± 1.37 | 2.56b ± 1.29 | 2.19a ± 1.16 | 3.132 |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 3.51b ± 0.77 | 3.56b ± 0.84 | 3.24a ± 0.94 | 4.757 |
| Individual serving | 3.40 ± 0.96 | 3.42 ± 0.99 | 3.21 ± 1.06 | 1.622 |
| Limited alcohol | 3.65b ± 1.14 | 3.60b ± 1.11 | 3.17a ± 1.20 | 5.753 |
| Local ingredients | 2.84 ± 0.97 | 2.96 ± 0.99 | 2.90 ± 1.05 | 0.352 |
| Total score | 28.82b ± 4.87 | 28.98b ± 5.62 | 26.37a ± 5.59 | 8.279 |
| Dietary guidelines | Changes in dietary habits |
Total change | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Activity | Delivery food | Convenience food | Eat out | Regular meals | ||
| Balanced diet | -0.111 |
-0.054 | -0.083 | -0.098 | 0.217 |
-0.118 |
| Less salt/sugar/oil | -0.067 | -0.089 | -0.074 | -0.103 | 0.125 |
-0.275 |
| Hydration | 0.016 | -0.064 | -0.143 |
-0.145 |
0.016 | -0.144 |
| Healthy weight | 0.055 | -0.138 |
-0.165 |
-0.181 |
0.210 |
-0.281 |
| Breakfast habit | -0.083 | -0.016 | -0.117 |
-0.110 |
0.176 |
-0.120 |
| Safe food handling and preparation | 0.024 | -0.012 | -0.056 | -0.022 | 0.085 | -0.135 |
| Individual serving | 0.012 | -0.061 | -0.026 | 0.018 | 0.097 | -0.071 |
| Limited alcohol | -0.009 | -0.002 | -0.104 | -0.014 |
0.033 | -0.176 |
| Local ingredients | -0.089 | -0.014 | -0.122 |
-0.125 |
0.090 | -0.083 |
| Total score | -0.050 | -0.081 | -0.167 |
-0.171 |
0.194 |
-0.258 |
| Model | Unstandardized coefficient |
Standardized coefficient |
T | F | R-square | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | SE | β | ||||
| (Constant) | 30.912 | 1.846 | 16.744 |
7.532 |
0.086 | |
| Delivery food | 0.234 | 0.326 | 0.045 | 0.718 | ||
| Convenience food | -1.060 | 0.371 | -0.181 | -2.855 |
||
| Eat out | -0.689 | 0.376 | -0.107 | -1.834 | ||
| Regular meals | 0.902 | 0.305 | 0.162 | 2.958 |
||
n (%) or mean ± SD
n (%)
Mean ± SD Scores indicate the degree of change as follows, 5: very increased, 4: increased, 3: no change, 2: decreased, 1: very decreased.
Mean ± SD Scores represent adherence as follows, 5: very good, 4: good, 3: usual, 2: bad, 1: very bad.
Mean ± SD Means with different lowercase letters in the same row are significantly different by Scheffe-test at
Mean ± SD Means with different lowercase letters in the same row are significantly different by Scheffe-test at
Mean ± SD Means with different lowercase letters in the same row are significantly different by Scheffe-test at
Mean ± SD Means with different lowercase letters in the same row are significantly different by Scheffe-test at
