, 조미숙2),†
, Mi Sook Cho2),†
1)이화여자대학교 식품영양학과, 박사
2)이화여자대학교 식품영양학과, 교수
1)PhD, Department of Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
2)Professor, Department of Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
© 2024 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of Interest
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
Funding
This research was supported by a grant from the Korean Society of Community Nutrition funded by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (Grant No. ISSN 2733-5488).
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Korea National Health and Examination Survey at http://knhanes.cdc.go.kr.
| Characteristics | Urban (n = 2,703) | Rural (n = 1,087) | Total (n = 3,790) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | 0.6799 | |||
| Men | 1,177 (46.1) | 465 (46.8) | 1,642 (46.3) | |
| Women | 1,526 (53.9) | 622 (53.2) | 2,148 (53.7) | |
| Age (years) | 0.0040 | |||
| ≥ 65 | 72.4 ± 0.1 | 73.2 ± 0.2 | 73.0 ± 0.2 | |
| Income level | < 0.0001 | |||
| Low | 559 (20.2) | 339 (30.4) | 898 (22.7) | |
| Middle-low | 649 (21.6) | 332 (31.3) | 981 (24.0) | |
| Middle-high | 731 (27.3) | 242 (21.5) | 973 (25.9) | |
| High | 764 (30.9) | 174 (16.9) | 938 (27.4) | |
| Household types | 0.0468 | |||
| Single-person household | 648 (19.3) | 293 (23.0) | 941 (20.2) | |
| Multi-person household | 2,055 (80.7) | 794 (77.0) | 2,849 (79.8) | |
| Educational level | < 0.0001 | |||
| Elementary school or less | 1,298 (45.5) | 740 (66.2) | 2,038 (50.6) | |
| Middle school | 483 (18.1) | 160 (16.0) | 643 (17.6) | |
| High school | 580 (22.7) | 140 (14.0) | 720 (20.5) | |
| College or higher | 342 (13.7) | 47 (3.8) | 389 (11.3) | |
| Smoking status | 0.0008 | |||
| Past/no smoker | 2,470 (91.1) | 965 (87.0) | 3,435 (90.1) | |
| Current smoker | 233 (8.9) | 122 (13.0) | 355 (9.9) | |
| Alcohol consumption1) | 0.6462 | |||
| No | 1,807 (66.2) | 749 (67.3) | 2,556 (66.5) | |
| Yes | 896 (33.8) | 338 (32.7) | 1,234 (33.5) | |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.1 ± 0.1 | 24.2 ± 0.2 | 24.2 ± 0.0 | 0.8702 |
| Impaired fasting glucose | 1,556 (58.1) | 620 (56.2) | 2,176 (57.6) | 0.4338 |
| Type 2 diabetes | 764 (28.4) | 311 (27.5) | 1,075 (28.2) | 0.6453 |
n (weighted %) or Mean ± SD.
All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design.
1)Alcohol consumption was defined as “no” for lifetime non-drinkers or those consuming less than one drink per month in the past year, and “yes” for those consuming more than one drink per month in the past year.
| Characteristics | Urban (n = 2,703) | Rural (n = 1,087) | Total (n = 3,790) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ultra-processed food intake | 146.1 ± 4.5 | 126.6 ± 6.6 | 137.1 ± 164.9 | 0.0153 |
| Ultra-processed food subgroups | ||||
| (1) Cereals, breads, cakes, sandwiches, etc. | 14.4 ± 0.91) | 10.2 ± 1.1 | 12.4 ± 39.5 | 0.0033 |
| (2) Distilled alcoholic beverages | 12.9 ± 1.4 | 18.3 ± 4.5 | 13.4 ± 69.1 | 0.2519 |
| (3) Sugar-sweetened beverages1) | 31.5 ± 1.7 | 31.2 ± 2.7 | 32.8 ± 79.1 | 0.9307 |
| (4) Fish and meat processed foods | 4.3 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 18.2 | 0.2443 |
| (5) Instant noodles and dumplings | 3.5 ± 0.5 | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 3.3 ± 22.2 | 0.6714 |
| (6) Traditional sauce | 18.7 ± 0.5 | 19.9 ± 1.0 | 19.0 ± 23.0 | 0.2968 |
| (7) Sweetened milk and its products | 22.4 ± 1.8 | 14.9 ± 2.1 | 20.2 ± 67.3 | 0.0060 |
| (8) Others (instant sauce, condiments, etc.) | 5.1 ± 0.4 | 3.5 ± 0.5 | 4.4 ± 12.5 | 0.0070 |
| (9) Cookies, chips, and snacks | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 14.4 | 0.0478 |
| (10) Soft drinks, fruit, and vegetable drinks | 14.8 ± 2.0 | 12.3 ± 2.9 | 12.3 ± 60.8 | 0.4765 |
| (11) Instant cooked rice, soup, and other dishes | 10.6 ± 1.4 | 4.5 ± 1.1 | 8.6 ± 51.4 | 0.0008 |
| (12) Confectionary | 4.2 ± 0.6 | 2.6 ± 0.7 | 3.2 ± 19.5 | 0.0878 |
Mean ± SD.
All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design.
1)Includes coffee or tea products with added sugar or milk, cocoa, or other sugar-sweetened beverages.
| Nutrients |
Urban (n = 2,703) |
Rural (n = 1,087) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q11) (n = 675, 24.3%) | Q2 (n = 676, 24.8%) | Q3 (n = 676, 25.8%) | Q4 (n = 676, 25.2%) | P-value | Q1 (n = 271, 23.4%) | Q2 (n = 272, 25.7%) | Q3 (n = 272, 24.1%) | Q4 (n = 272, 26.8%) | P-value | |
| Energy (kcal) | 1,340.8 ± 25.2 | 1,473.8 ± 23.6 | 1,589.1 ± 27.2 | 1,945.0 ± 30.9 | < 0.0001 | 1,315.0 ± 44.3 | 1,418.5 ± 39.4 | 1,567.3 ± 29.5 | 1,926.5 ± 52.8 | < 0.0001 |
| Carbohydrate (g) | 231.3 ± 4.3 | 248.2 ± 4.1 | 259.8 ± 4.1 | 289.9 ± 4.4 | < 0.0001 | 233.2 ± 6.0 | 254.2 ± 7.7 | 273.0 ± 5.9 | 296.5 ± 7.0 | < 0.0001 |
| Protein (g) | 48.4 ± 1.2 | 53.9 ± 1.1 | 58.6 ± 1.4 | 69.7 ± 1.9 | < 0.0001 | 44.1 ± 1.8 | 47.5 ± 1.4 | 53.5 ± 1.3 | 66.3 ± 2.4 | < 0.0001 |
| Fat (g) | 23.3 ± 0.9 | 28.1 ± 0.8 | 33.0 ± 0.9 | 46.2 ± 1.3 | < 0.0001 | 19.1 ± 0.9 | 21.8 ± 1.0 | 26.8 ± 1.0 | 38.9 ± 2.0 | < 0.0001 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 24.9 ± 0.6 | 26.6 ± 0.6 | 28.0 ± 0.6 | 29.8 ± 0.6 | < 0.0001 | 22.5 ± 1.1 | 25.1 ± 1.0 | 28.6 ± 1.1 | 30.1 ± 1.1 | < 0.0001 |
| Calcium (mg) | 373.6 ± 10.8 | 464.5 ± 13.8 | 498.9 ± 14.3 | 597.7 ± 15.7 | < 0.0001 | 321.4 ± 20.5 | 378.9 ± 17.2 | 467.9 ± 19.3 | 562.5 ± 26.0 | < 0.0001 |
| Phosphorus (mg) | 805.4 ± 18.1 | 901.2 ± 18.1 | 983.4 ± 21.4 | 1,129.0 ± 24.8 | < 0.0001 | 727.7 ± 25.8 | 797.6 ± 24.1 | 904.9 ± 21.1 | 1,072.2 ± 32.7 | < 0.0001 |
| Iron (mg) | 7.2 ± 0.2 | 8.3 ± 0.3 | 8.7 ± 0.2 | 11.0 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 6.3 ± 0.3 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 8.1 ± 0.2 | 9.9 ± 0.5 | < 0.0001 |
| Sodium (mg) | 2,258.5 ± 59.9 | 2,749.1 ± 67.1 | 2,930.1 ± 82.9 | 3,437.0 ± 94.0 | < 0.0001 | 2,215.7 ± 130.0 | 2,785.9 ± 136.6 | 3,079.7 ± 124.8 | 3,648.0 ± 152.3 | < 0.0001 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2,269.6 ± 55.6 | 2,563.7 ± 63.9 | 2,738.7 ± 59.2 | 2,943.0 ± 63.0 | < 0.0001 | 1,974.1 ± 75.9 | 2,282.2 ± 84.5 | 2,588.8 ± 82.8 | 2,905.4 ± 95.6 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin A (µg RAE) | 282.2 ± 12.8 | 342.3 ± 16.2 | 383.8 ± 15.4 | 459.2 ± 35.8 | < 0.0001 | 236.0 ± 22.5 | 240.2 ± 13.8 | 321.2 ± 22.1 | 357.6 ± 23.6 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin B1 (mg) | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | < 0.0001 | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin B2 (mg) | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | 1.3 ± 0.0 | 1.6 ± 0.0 | < 0.0001 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.1 ± 0.0 | 1.4 ± 0.1 | < 0.0001 |
| Niacin (mg) | 8.0 ± 0.2 | 9.4 ± 0.2 | 10.1 ± 0.3 | 12.0 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 8.2 ± 0.3 | 9.7 ± 0.3 | 11.9 ± 0.5 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 53.3 ± 2.6 | 58.9 ± 2.3 | 70.4 ± 3.6 | 71.9 ± 4.3 | < 0.0001 | 44.2 ± 3.6 | 49.8 ± 4.2 | 57.6 ± 4.2 | 64.9 ± 4.8 | 0.0007 |
Mean ± SD.
All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design.
1)The study subjects were divided into 4 groups according to the quartile of energy intake from ultra-processed foods.
| Characteristics |
Urban (n = 2,703) |
Rural (n = 1,087) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q11) (n = 675, 24.3%) | Q2 (n = 676, 24.8%) | Q3 (n = 676, 25.8%) | Q4 (n = 676, 25.2%) | P-value | Q1 (n = 271, 23.4%) | Q2 (n = 272, 25.7%) | Q3 (n = 272, 24.1%) | Q4 (n = 272, 26.8%) | P-value | |
| Proportion with adequate fat intake | 430 (65.4) | 370 (54.3) | 332 (49.1) | 277 (41.4) | < 0.0001 | 141 (53.6) | 107 (39.7) | 89 (34.7) | 89 (34.5) | < 0.0001 |
| Proportion with sodium intake < CDRR2) | 351 (51.7) | 235 (35.4) | 210 (31.3) | 156 (23.6) | < 0.0001 | 147 (54.4) | 101 (36.6) | 77 (28.2) | 77 (27.6) | < 0.0001 |
| Proportion with fruit & vegetable intake ≥ 500 g/day | 291 (43.1) | 291 (45.3) | 270 (39.1) | 243 (35.0) | 0.0075 | 117 (44.3) | 103 (39.0) | 87 (33.3) | 80 (30.1) | 0.0156 |
| Proportion using nutrition label information in food selection | 69 (11.3) | 83 (12.7) | 77 (11.6) | 77 (12.0) | 0.9074 | 23 (7.1) | 25 (9.0) | 19 (8.1) | 17 (5.8) | 0.6569 |
| Score ≥ 23) | 320 (48.5) | 308 (47.4) | 283 (41.9) | 290 (42.6) | 0.0747 | 111 (41.8) | 79 (28.6) | 70 (28.6) | 89 (34.0) | 0.0173 |
n (weighted %).
All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design. CDRR, chronic disease risk reduction intake.
1)The study subjects were divided into 4 groups according to the quartile of energy intake from ultra-processed foods.
2)The CDRR refers to the minimum intake of nutrients that can reduce the risk of chronic disease in a healthy population.
3)The criteria for meeting healthy eating practices are for individuals to follow at least 2 out of the 4 specific guidelines.
| Characteristics |
Urban (n = 2,703) |
Rural (n = 1,087) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q11) (n = 675, 24.3%) | Q2 (n = 676, 24.8%) | Q3 (n = 676, 25.8%) | Q4 (n = 676, 25.2%) | P for trend | Q1 (n = 271, 23.4%) | Q2 (n = 272, 25.7%) | Q3 (n = 272, 24.1%) | Q4 (n = 272, 26.8%) | P for trend | |
| Impaired fasting glucose | ||||||||||
| Model 12) | 1.00 | 1.14 (0.89–1.44) | 1.05 (0.84–1.32) | 1.10 (0.87–1.39) | 0.1358 | 1.00 | 1.16 (0.80–1.68) | 1.08 (0.77–1.53) | 1.35 (0.92–1.97) | 0.0028 |
| Model 23) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.15 (0.91–1.46) | 1.05 (0.84–1.33) | 1.08 (0.84–1.39) | 0.1424 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.22 (0.83–1.79) | 1.15 (0.80–1.65) | 1.48 (1.00–2.19) | 0.0014 |
| Diabetes | ||||||||||
| Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.70–1.19) | 0.92 (0.70–1.22) | 0.91 (0.68–1.20) | 0.7389 | 1.00 | 1.10 (0.74–1.65) | 1.24 (0.82–1.89) | 1.09 (0.71–1.67) | 0.0404 |
| Model 2 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 0.94 (0.72–1.24) | 0.96 (0.72–1.27) | 0.97 (0.72–1.31) | 0.5771 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.11 (0.73–1.69) | 1.34 (0.87–2.05) | 1.22 (0.75–2.00) | 0.0065 |
Adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval).
All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design.
1)Study participants were divided into 4 groups based on quartiles of energy intake from ultra-processed foods.
2)Model 1: Multiple logistic regression estimated the odds of ultra-processed food intake quartiles for participants by region, adjusted for sex and age.
3)Model 2: Multiple logistic regression estimated the odds of ultra-processed food intake quartiles for participants by region, adjusted for sex, age, education, income, marital status, household type, smoking status, drinking status, and energy intake.
| Characteristics | Urban (n = 2,703) | Rural (n = 1,087) | Total (n = 3,790) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | 0.6799 | |||
| Men | 1,177 (46.1) | 465 (46.8) | 1,642 (46.3) | |
| Women | 1,526 (53.9) | 622 (53.2) | 2,148 (53.7) | |
| Age (years) | 0.0040 | |||
| ≥ 65 | 72.4 ± 0.1 | 73.2 ± 0.2 | 73.0 ± 0.2 | |
| Income level | < 0.0001 | |||
| Low | 559 (20.2) | 339 (30.4) | 898 (22.7) | |
| Middle-low | 649 (21.6) | 332 (31.3) | 981 (24.0) | |
| Middle-high | 731 (27.3) | 242 (21.5) | 973 (25.9) | |
| High | 764 (30.9) | 174 (16.9) | 938 (27.4) | |
| Household types | 0.0468 | |||
| Single-person household | 648 (19.3) | 293 (23.0) | 941 (20.2) | |
| Multi-person household | 2,055 (80.7) | 794 (77.0) | 2,849 (79.8) | |
| Educational level | < 0.0001 | |||
| Elementary school or less | 1,298 (45.5) | 740 (66.2) | 2,038 (50.6) | |
| Middle school | 483 (18.1) | 160 (16.0) | 643 (17.6) | |
| High school | 580 (22.7) | 140 (14.0) | 720 (20.5) | |
| College or higher | 342 (13.7) | 47 (3.8) | 389 (11.3) | |
| Smoking status | 0.0008 | |||
| Past/no smoker | 2,470 (91.1) | 965 (87.0) | 3,435 (90.1) | |
| Current smoker | 233 (8.9) | 122 (13.0) | 355 (9.9) | |
| Alcohol consumption |
0.6462 | |||
| No | 1,807 (66.2) | 749 (67.3) | 2,556 (66.5) | |
| Yes | 896 (33.8) | 338 (32.7) | 1,234 (33.5) | |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.1 ± 0.1 | 24.2 ± 0.2 | 24.2 ± 0.0 | 0.8702 |
| Impaired fasting glucose | 1,556 (58.1) | 620 (56.2) | 2,176 (57.6) | 0.4338 |
| Type 2 diabetes | 764 (28.4) | 311 (27.5) | 1,075 (28.2) | 0.6453 |
| Characteristics | Urban (n = 2,703) | Rural (n = 1,087) | Total (n = 3,790) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ultra-processed food intake | 146.1 ± 4.5 | 126.6 ± 6.6 | 137.1 ± 164.9 | 0.0153 |
| Ultra-processed food subgroups | ||||
| (1) Cereals, breads, cakes, sandwiches, etc. | 14.4 ± 0.9 |
10.2 ± 1.1 | 12.4 ± 39.5 | 0.0033 |
| (2) Distilled alcoholic beverages | 12.9 ± 1.4 | 18.3 ± 4.5 | 13.4 ± 69.1 | 0.2519 |
| (3) Sugar-sweetened beverages |
31.5 ± 1.7 | 31.2 ± 2.7 | 32.8 ± 79.1 | 0.9307 |
| (4) Fish and meat processed foods | 4.3 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 18.2 | 0.2443 |
| (5) Instant noodles and dumplings | 3.5 ± 0.5 | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 3.3 ± 22.2 | 0.6714 |
| (6) Traditional sauce | 18.7 ± 0.5 | 19.9 ± 1.0 | 19.0 ± 23.0 | 0.2968 |
| (7) Sweetened milk and its products | 22.4 ± 1.8 | 14.9 ± 2.1 | 20.2 ± 67.3 | 0.0060 |
| (8) Others (instant sauce, condiments, etc.) | 5.1 ± 0.4 | 3.5 ± 0.5 | 4.4 ± 12.5 | 0.0070 |
| (9) Cookies, chips, and snacks | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 14.4 | 0.0478 |
| (10) Soft drinks, fruit, and vegetable drinks | 14.8 ± 2.0 | 12.3 ± 2.9 | 12.3 ± 60.8 | 0.4765 |
| (11) Instant cooked rice, soup, and other dishes | 10.6 ± 1.4 | 4.5 ± 1.1 | 8.6 ± 51.4 | 0.0008 |
| (12) Confectionary | 4.2 ± 0.6 | 2.6 ± 0.7 | 3.2 ± 19.5 | 0.0878 |
| Nutrients | Urban (n = 2,703) |
Rural (n = 1,087) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 |
Q2 (n = 676, 24.8%) | Q3 (n = 676, 25.8%) | Q4 (n = 676, 25.2%) | P-value | Q1 (n = 271, 23.4%) | Q2 (n = 272, 25.7%) | Q3 (n = 272, 24.1%) | Q4 (n = 272, 26.8%) | P-value | |
| Energy (kcal) | 1,340.8 ± 25.2 | 1,473.8 ± 23.6 | 1,589.1 ± 27.2 | 1,945.0 ± 30.9 | < 0.0001 | 1,315.0 ± 44.3 | 1,418.5 ± 39.4 | 1,567.3 ± 29.5 | 1,926.5 ± 52.8 | < 0.0001 |
| Carbohydrate (g) | 231.3 ± 4.3 | 248.2 ± 4.1 | 259.8 ± 4.1 | 289.9 ± 4.4 | < 0.0001 | 233.2 ± 6.0 | 254.2 ± 7.7 | 273.0 ± 5.9 | 296.5 ± 7.0 | < 0.0001 |
| Protein (g) | 48.4 ± 1.2 | 53.9 ± 1.1 | 58.6 ± 1.4 | 69.7 ± 1.9 | < 0.0001 | 44.1 ± 1.8 | 47.5 ± 1.4 | 53.5 ± 1.3 | 66.3 ± 2.4 | < 0.0001 |
| Fat (g) | 23.3 ± 0.9 | 28.1 ± 0.8 | 33.0 ± 0.9 | 46.2 ± 1.3 | < 0.0001 | 19.1 ± 0.9 | 21.8 ± 1.0 | 26.8 ± 1.0 | 38.9 ± 2.0 | < 0.0001 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 24.9 ± 0.6 | 26.6 ± 0.6 | 28.0 ± 0.6 | 29.8 ± 0.6 | < 0.0001 | 22.5 ± 1.1 | 25.1 ± 1.0 | 28.6 ± 1.1 | 30.1 ± 1.1 | < 0.0001 |
| Calcium (mg) | 373.6 ± 10.8 | 464.5 ± 13.8 | 498.9 ± 14.3 | 597.7 ± 15.7 | < 0.0001 | 321.4 ± 20.5 | 378.9 ± 17.2 | 467.9 ± 19.3 | 562.5 ± 26.0 | < 0.0001 |
| Phosphorus (mg) | 805.4 ± 18.1 | 901.2 ± 18.1 | 983.4 ± 21.4 | 1,129.0 ± 24.8 | < 0.0001 | 727.7 ± 25.8 | 797.6 ± 24.1 | 904.9 ± 21.1 | 1,072.2 ± 32.7 | < 0.0001 |
| Iron (mg) | 7.2 ± 0.2 | 8.3 ± 0.3 | 8.7 ± 0.2 | 11.0 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 6.3 ± 0.3 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 8.1 ± 0.2 | 9.9 ± 0.5 | < 0.0001 |
| Sodium (mg) | 2,258.5 ± 59.9 | 2,749.1 ± 67.1 | 2,930.1 ± 82.9 | 3,437.0 ± 94.0 | < 0.0001 | 2,215.7 ± 130.0 | 2,785.9 ± 136.6 | 3,079.7 ± 124.8 | 3,648.0 ± 152.3 | < 0.0001 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2,269.6 ± 55.6 | 2,563.7 ± 63.9 | 2,738.7 ± 59.2 | 2,943.0 ± 63.0 | < 0.0001 | 1,974.1 ± 75.9 | 2,282.2 ± 84.5 | 2,588.8 ± 82.8 | 2,905.4 ± 95.6 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin A (µg RAE) | 282.2 ± 12.8 | 342.3 ± 16.2 | 383.8 ± 15.4 | 459.2 ± 35.8 | < 0.0001 | 236.0 ± 22.5 | 240.2 ± 13.8 | 321.2 ± 22.1 | 357.6 ± 23.6 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin B1 (mg) | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | < 0.0001 | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin B2 (mg) | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | 1.3 ± 0.0 | 1.6 ± 0.0 | < 0.0001 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.1 ± 0.0 | 1.4 ± 0.1 | < 0.0001 |
| Niacin (mg) | 8.0 ± 0.2 | 9.4 ± 0.2 | 10.1 ± 0.3 | 12.0 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 8.2 ± 0.3 | 9.7 ± 0.3 | 11.9 ± 0.5 | < 0.0001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 53.3 ± 2.6 | 58.9 ± 2.3 | 70.4 ± 3.6 | 71.9 ± 4.3 | < 0.0001 | 44.2 ± 3.6 | 49.8 ± 4.2 | 57.6 ± 4.2 | 64.9 ± 4.8 | 0.0007 |
| Characteristics | Urban (n = 2,703) |
Rural (n = 1,087) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 |
Q2 (n = 676, 24.8%) | Q3 (n = 676, 25.8%) | Q4 (n = 676, 25.2%) | P-value | Q1 (n = 271, 23.4%) | Q2 (n = 272, 25.7%) | Q3 (n = 272, 24.1%) | Q4 (n = 272, 26.8%) | P-value | |
| Proportion with adequate fat intake | 430 (65.4) | 370 (54.3) | 332 (49.1) | 277 (41.4) | < 0.0001 | 141 (53.6) | 107 (39.7) | 89 (34.7) | 89 (34.5) | < 0.0001 |
| Proportion with sodium intake < CDRR |
351 (51.7) | 235 (35.4) | 210 (31.3) | 156 (23.6) | < 0.0001 | 147 (54.4) | 101 (36.6) | 77 (28.2) | 77 (27.6) | < 0.0001 |
| Proportion with fruit & vegetable intake ≥ 500 g/day | 291 (43.1) | 291 (45.3) | 270 (39.1) | 243 (35.0) | 0.0075 | 117 (44.3) | 103 (39.0) | 87 (33.3) | 80 (30.1) | 0.0156 |
| Proportion using nutrition label information in food selection | 69 (11.3) | 83 (12.7) | 77 (11.6) | 77 (12.0) | 0.9074 | 23 (7.1) | 25 (9.0) | 19 (8.1) | 17 (5.8) | 0.6569 |
| Score ≥ 2 |
320 (48.5) | 308 (47.4) | 283 (41.9) | 290 (42.6) | 0.0747 | 111 (41.8) | 79 (28.6) | 70 (28.6) | 89 (34.0) | 0.0173 |
| Characteristics | Urban (n = 2,703) |
Rural (n = 1,087) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 |
Q2 (n = 676, 24.8%) | Q3 (n = 676, 25.8%) | Q4 (n = 676, 25.2%) | P for trend | Q1 (n = 271, 23.4%) | Q2 (n = 272, 25.7%) | Q3 (n = 272, 24.1%) | Q4 (n = 272, 26.8%) | P for trend | |
| Impaired fasting glucose | ||||||||||
| Model 1 |
1.00 | 1.14 (0.89–1.44) | 1.05 (0.84–1.32) | 1.10 (0.87–1.39) | 0.1358 | 1.00 | 1.16 (0.80–1.68) | 1.08 (0.77–1.53) | 1.35 (0.92–1.97) | 0.0028 |
| Model 2 |
1.00 (Ref.) | 1.15 (0.91–1.46) | 1.05 (0.84–1.33) | 1.08 (0.84–1.39) | 0.1424 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.22 (0.83–1.79) | 1.15 (0.80–1.65) | 1.48 (1.00–2.19) | 0.0014 |
| Diabetes | ||||||||||
| Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.70–1.19) | 0.92 (0.70–1.22) | 0.91 (0.68–1.20) | 0.7389 | 1.00 | 1.10 (0.74–1.65) | 1.24 (0.82–1.89) | 1.09 (0.71–1.67) | 0.0404 |
| Model 2 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 0.94 (0.72–1.24) | 0.96 (0.72–1.27) | 0.97 (0.72–1.31) | 0.5771 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.11 (0.73–1.69) | 1.34 (0.87–2.05) | 1.22 (0.75–2.00) | 0.0065 |
n (weighted %) or Mean ± SD. All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design. Alcohol consumption was defined as “no” for lifetime non-drinkers or those consuming less than one drink per month in the past year, and “yes” for those consuming more than one drink per month in the past year.
Mean ± SD. All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design. Includes coffee or tea products with added sugar or milk, cocoa, or other sugar-sweetened beverages.
Mean ± SD. All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design. The study subjects were divided into 4 groups according to the quartile of energy intake from ultra-processed foods.
n (weighted %). All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design. CDRR, chronic disease risk reduction intake. The study subjects were divided into 4 groups according to the quartile of energy intake from ultra-processed foods. The CDRR refers to the minimum intake of nutrients that can reduce the risk of chronic disease in a healthy population. The criteria for meeting healthy eating practices are for individuals to follow at least 2 out of the 4 specific guidelines.
Adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval). All the estimates were produced to represent the Korean population using sample weight for the analysis of the health and nutrition survey. The SAS SURVEY procedure was used to account for multistage sampling and the unequally weighted design. Study participants were divided into 4 groups based on quartiles of energy intake from ultra-processed foods. Model 1: Multiple logistic regression estimated the odds of ultra-processed food intake quartiles for participants by region, adjusted for sex and age. Model 2: Multiple logistic regression estimated the odds of ultra-processed food intake quartiles for participants by region, adjusted for sex, age, education, income, marital status, household type, smoking status, drinking status, and energy intake.
