Food literacy (FL), derived from health literacy, has recently gained prominence as a critical dietary competency [1, 2]. FL is a concept interpreted in various ways, with many researchers adopting the definition provided by Vidgen & Gallegos [3], which underscores functional abilities such as food planning and cooking. In Korea, there is an ongoing discourse about the definition of FL. Park et al. posit FL as the ability to manage dietary information for health promotion [4]. Yoo et al. [5] emphasize FL as more than just understanding nutritional information, including the capacity to manage one’s diet and highlight the cultural, relational, and socio-ecological aspects of FL. Yoo et al. [5] categorized FL into 3 distinct domains. First, nutrition and safety FL focuses on acquiring and applying knowledge and skills related to nutrition and food safety. The second domain is cultural and relational FL, encompassing an interest in the cultural aspects of food and the ability to contribute to community life through food. The third domain is socio-ecological FL, which involves understanding and showing interest in the social and ecological consequences of individual food choices.

Building on Yoo et al.’s conceptualization of FL [2, 5], a previous study conducted an in-depth analysis of the Seoul Food Survey, revealing that young adults, students, men, and people aged 18–29 are particularly vulnerable to low FL [6]. Among these groups, university students were notably a high-risk demographic. They were characterized by the lowest FL scores, with irregular diets, limited consumption of fresh foods such as fruits and vegetables, and heavy reliance on food from convenience stores or delivery services over home cooking [7]. Moreover, the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic further exacerbated this trend, increasing the consumption of Home Meal Replacements and delivery food among university students [8]. Because unhealthy eating habits during young adulthood can contribute to future weight problems and chronic diseases [9], improving FL to adopt healthier dietary habits is imperative.

Campus food environments play a pivotal role in shaping dietary behavior [10]. Changes in students’ personal environments, such as shifts in living conditions, have altered dietary patterns, including meal frequency and opting for packaged and delivered foods [11, 12]. Unfortunately, campus environments often provide limited access to healthy options and cooking opportunities [13]. Economic constraints are common among university students, making it challenging to make high-quality food choices [13]. Therefore, creating a campus environment conducive to healthy eating is crucial.

Notably, previous research revealed that students who received nutrition education in campus classes exhibited improvements in nutritional knowledge and dietary behavior [14]. Although post-intervention assessments revealed some decline in knowledge over time, they remained above the standard, emphasizing the importance of nutrition education in influencing students’ dietary habits [15]. Malan et al. posit that FL plays a positive role in guiding and maintaining a healthy diet, making it a valuable nutritional education component [16]. Programs incorporating FL have demonstrated positive effects [17]. However, campus-based educational programs focusing on FL among university students are lacking.

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) can be used for understanding human behaviors that posit the interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors influencing physical and mental health habits [18, 19]. Previous research explored the application of SCT on nutritional behavior and identified factors such as self-efficacy, social support, and self-regulation as key constructs associated with food purchasing and consumption [20]. In previous nutritional interventions utilizing SCT, improvements in behavioral skills and self-efficacy in the intervention group have been linked to increased fruit consumption [21]. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a campus-based education program for university students using key constructs from SCT, addressing the 3 domains of FL with the goal of promoting a healthy, happy, and sustainable diet, as defined in previous studies [2, 5].

This study endeavors to develop a campus-based FL program tailored for university students. The research was conducted between January and June 2022, and the detailed steps are outlined in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Food literacy (FL) program development flowchart

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Step 1: Analyzing existing FL programs and factors influencing FL among university students

To shape the program’s components and measurement tools, we analyzed domestic and international literature encompassing existing FL-related intervention programs. This analysis enabled us to identify the necessity of the program. Additionally, we reviewed previous studies, including interviews with university students, to understand the facilitators and barriers affecting the FL of the individuals.

1) Literature review

We conducted a literature search from January to March 2022 using PubMed and Google Scholar databases. The search focused on academic papers related to FL programs. Given the substantial growth in FL research over the past decade, we focused on literature published after 2014. Search keywords included “food literacy,” “intervention,” “program,” “young adults,” “youth,” and “nutrition education.” The inclusion criteria were educational programs or interventions targeting adults or young adults lasting at least 4 weeks, with pre- and post-measurements of FL concepts/areas during the intervention period.

Our search yielded 50 academic papers on adult FL intervention programs. After applying the inclusion criteria, 3 papers remained for analysis (Table 1). These studies ranged from 4 to 6 weeks and aimed to enhance various aspects of FL, such as culinary planning, ingredient selection, food safety, and increasing vegetable intake. Although these studies demonstrated positive effects on improving FL-related behaviors, particularly fruit intake, and food-related techniques, FL intervention studies focusing on young adults were lacking. No studies targeted young adults and met the inclusion criteria.

Table 1
Literature review of food literacy intervention programs for adults

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2) Interviews with university students on FL facilitators and barriers

Between March and November 2020, we interviewed 25 university students aged 20 to 27 to identify the facilitators and barriers related to their dietary and FL [22]. Several key insights were used for the curriculum planning. For nutrition and safety FL, facilitators included diverse media channels for gaining nutrition knowledge and opportunities for culinary experiences. Barriers included financial constraints, lack of nutritional knowledge, irregular lifestyles, and academic stress. For cultural and relational FL, facilitators included exposure to foreign cultures and communal dining experiences, whereas the barriers included limited cooking experiences and eating alone. In terms of socio-ecological FL, facilitators encompassed previous experiences in cooking and gardening as well as personal preferences for taste and price advantages. Barriers included economic constraints, lack of knowledge, and limited opportunities for cooking.

Further details can be found in a previous study [22]. The interviews conducted in this study shed light on individual constraints and the restricted availability of resources within the campus setting, hindering efforts to enhance FL and cultivate a lifestyle of healthy dietary choices. Upon examining the participants’ interview responses, the importance of a supportive campus environment and curriculum fostering opportunities to enhance nutritional knowledge, culinary skills, and a comprehensive understanding of various facets of FL was underscored.

The finalized curriculum draft is rooted in the theoretical framework of SCT and is designed to cover 3 main FL domains: nutrition and safety, cultural and relational, and socio-ecological aspects.

11-week program curriculum

The 11-week program, detailed in Table 2, commences with an orientation in Week 1, in which participants are introduced to FL and mindful eating. In Week 2, the groups are divided: one attends yoga sessions, while the other learns food storage and preparation techniques, including making dishes such as Dakgalbi and oil Tteokbokki. Week 3 involves an emotional awareness class alongside starting a mindful eating diary, which students update 2-3 times weekly to reflect on the emotions associated with their meals. In Week 4, the teams exchange activities from Week 2. Week 5 features the topic of veganism led by an expert from Chuncheon. This expert educates the students about veganism and daily vegan foods and guides them in preparing and tasting vegan finger foods. Week 6 sees the students visiting a local farm for produce harvesting and cooking, coupled with group games and team-building exercises. Week 7 includes a class led by an animal protection expert discussing the definition, importance, and contemporary status of animal welfare, focusing on its practical applications from the perspective of university students. During Weeks 8 and 9, the focus shifts to making traditional Korean desserts in campus kitchens. In week 10, participants will delve into the concepts of zero-waste and circular economy, engaging in practical activities such as crafting plastic-free shampoo bars. The program culminates in Week 11 with a completion ceremony, providing a platform for participants to reflect on and share their experiences.

Table 2
Final version of the curriculum for improving food literacy among university students

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Curriculum evaluation and organization

The program is structured around 15 measurement items for FL, comprising 2 items each on self-efficacy and knowledge, 9 on attitudes, and 2 on behavioral skills. Although environmental constructs were not included in the measurement tools for the program evaluation, we attempted to incorporate some environmental elements from SCT into the program (Table 3).

Table 3
Key food literacy and social cognitive theory domains and sub-elements for program development

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These items were used for program evaluation. The program ran for 3 h, including 90 min of theory-based lectures and 90 minutes of practical sessions. The duration of the lectures and practice sessions varied depending on the weekly topic. The program began with nutrition and safety FL and mindful eating classes and gradually expanded to socio-ecological FL. All practical sessions of the program primarily consisted of group activities and a certain amount of time was allocated each week to share stories among the participants. Additional supplementary components can be added to the curriculum as the program progresses after evaluating the level of participation and understanding of the participants.

During program development, potential target participants provided feedback after reviewing the initial draft of the curriculum. This feedback focused on their interests, areas for improvement, preferred activities, and activities they did not want to participate in. Young adults were divided into 2 groups when asked about their general interest in the program. We summarized their main feedback based on their general interest for the following 2 reasons: 1) to understand whether there is any key difference in their feedback according to their interest and 2) to find strategies to attract more participants, especially those who were not initially interested in the program. The main ideas are summarized below.

Expert consultation

The experts provided detailed advice on the program. Experts suggested that, while the program content appears interesting, students might find it burdensome to participate weekly, considering other academic requirements. They emphasized the need for breaks between sessions. Because program participation cannot be compulsory, they emphasized the importance of providing motivation and adding fun activities in which participants were genuinely interested. They also suggested aligning the program with the students’ recent interest in fostering empathy and enhancing participation. The experts recommended guiding students during the program to help them assess their progress, learn, and identify areas of improvement. Finally, they highlighted the importance of team activities in fostering friendships and underscored the significance of peer tutor roles.

Comments from the young adults and experts were incorporated into the revised version of the curriculum (Fig. 2). The completed program was implemented from August 2022 to February 2023. The results and effectiveness evaluations are detailed in a separate paper.

Fig. 2
Food literacy (FL) program overview

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Nutrition education for young adults plays a pivotal role in preventing chronic diseases and cultivating a healthier society. While the significance of FL education is steadily gaining recognition [25], the development and implementation of FL programs are still in the nascent stages. Although finding nutritional education and dietary programs grounded in FL remains challenging, interventions specifically tailored for young adults have been designed and implemented. For instance, Joung et al. [26] devised a dietary life program tailored to young adults living in single-person households, yielding notable enhancements in temperance and daily life, as indicated by improvements in the adult Nutrition Quotient index. Ghammachi et al. [27] successfully conducted a web-based nutrition education program employing Social Network Services, resulting in heightened awareness and knowledge levels pertinent to sustainable diets among young adults. Given the efficacy of nutrition education for young adults, it is reasonable to anticipate that this program will help improve their eating habits.

The program was meticulously designed to provide nutrition education in a university campus setting. Universities are acknowledged as pivotal environments that significantly impact students’ health [28]. A study investigating dietary education preferences among young adults in single-person households affirmed that university students favor face-to-face education and prefer nutrition education in the university context [29]. Furthermore, participation in on-campus nutrition education led to improvements in nutritional knowledge and eating attitudes [30]. Given that university students primarily conduct their daily lives on campus, the seamless integration of nutrition programs into their routines is paramount in facilitating knowledge enhancement and attitudes changes.

This program was underpinned by a tutoring-based approach to nutrition education. This pedagogical method has effectively fostered friendships and addressed social and self-esteem needs [31]. Tutoring initiatives with nursing students have revealed enhancements in problem-solving abilities, critical thinking skills, improved communication, and individual growth [32]. Similarly, in a study focused on health promotion programs for children utilizing peer tutoring, health-related knowledge scores substantially improved for tutors and tutees [33]. Through the development of this nutrition program, tutoring emerges as a mechanism for university adaptation and learning, offering opportunities for lower-grade students to become tutees. This, in turn, is expected to yield positive outcomes such as heightened confidence and personal growth for tutors and tutees.

The program incorporates activities involving community experts and instructors, offering opportunities for students to engage with local resources firsthand. Students learning from community experts tend to exhibit favorable shifts in their attitudes and increase their confidence [34]. Moreover, it extends beyond the traditional educational role of universities by embracing a broader community engagement facet [35]. This facilitates the expansion of community services related to education [36]. Consequently, the program is structured to deliver mutual benefits to the community and participating students.

This program has been designed in alignment with the SCT. Similarly, McWhorter et al. applied SCT to develop a program aimed at promoting behavioral change, recipe demonstration, and enhancement of healthy food consumption behaviors to augment FL, culinary skills, and knowledge of nutritionists, ultimately confirming improvements in nutritional proficiency [37]. However, the socio-ecological domain was not encompassed within the scope of FL in that study. In contrast, the program presented herein comprehensively covers various FL domains. As such, it is anticipated that an 11-week curriculum will positively influence nutrition and environment-related competencies, surpassing the achievements of prior studies in this regard.

This study developed an 11-week campus-based program targeting university students using FL and emotional factors. However, this study did not include an evaluation process for the effectiveness of the developed program, making it difficult to assess its validity. A separate manuscript on the effectiveness evaluation is underway, which can be informative in providing future directions for the program.

This study successfully crafted an 11-week FL program harnessing the resources available within the campus and the broader community. By integrating theoretical and practical classes, the program was designed to augment students’ comprehension and interest in FL. The significance of this study lies in its provision of foundational data that can inform the development of forthcoming FL initiatives. Future research should prioritize assessing the program’s effectiveness through direct implementation and evaluating its suitability as a nutrition education program tailored to young adults. Moreover, there is a pressing need to delve into the elements and tools essential for sustaining continuous education rather than limiting interventions to one-time occurrences. Consequently, this study provides invaluable insights into the design and execution of future FL programs targeting university students.