1)배재대학교 식품영양학과 교수
2)숭의여자대학교 식품영양과 조교수
3)대전광역시 서구 어린이•사회복지급식관리지원센터 부센터장
4)신구대학교 식품영양학과 조교수
5)매일헬스뉴트리션(주) R&D group, 차장
6)성균관대학교 강북삼성병원 가정의학과 교수
1)Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Pai Chai University, Daejeon, Korea
2)Assistant Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Soongeui Women’s University, Seoul, Korea
3)Associate Director, Daejeon-Seogu Children and Social Welfare Meal Management Support Center, Daejeon, Korea
4)Assistant Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Shingu University, Seongnam, Korea
5)Associate Director, R&D group, Maeil Health Nutrition Co., Ltd, Korea
6)Professor, Department of Family Medicine, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea
© 2025 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
This research was supported by grants from the National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation of Korea (Grant No. 20162식생안091 & 23192영양안060).
DATA AVAILABILITY
Research data is available upon request to the corresponding author.
Characteristics | Classification | Frequency |
---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 8 (20.0) |
Female | 32 (80.0) | |
Age group (year) | 10s | 4 (10.0) |
20s | 26 (65.0) | |
30s | 2 (5.0) | |
40s | 3 (7.5) | |
50+ | 5 (12.5) | |
Family size | 1 | 6 (15.0) |
2 | 1 (2.5) | |
3 | 7 (17.5) | |
4 | 17 (42.5) | |
≥ 5 | 8 (20.0) | |
N/A | 1 (2.5) | |
Occupation | Service and sales | 1 (2.5) |
Clerical | 6 (15.0) | |
Self-employed | 1 (2.5) | |
Professionals | 2 (5.0) | |
Others | 15 (37.5) | |
None | 15 (37.5) | |
Income range (million KRW) | < 1 | 6 (15.0) |
1–2 | 4 (10.0) | |
2–3 | 0 (0.0) | |
3–4 | 9 (22.5) | |
4–5 | 8 (20.0) | |
≥ 5 | 12 (30.0) | |
N/A | 1 (2.5) | |
Education level | Elementary school graduate | 3 (7.5) |
Middle school graduate | 0 (0.0) | |
High school graduate | 21 (52.5) | |
University graduate | 11 (27.5) | |
Graduate school or higher | 3 (7.5) | |
N/A | 2 (5.0) | |
Obesity degree | Underweight1) | 4 (10.0) |
Normal weight2) | 23 (57.5) | |
Overweight3) | 8 (20.0) | |
Obese4) | 5 (12.5) |
Classification | Before1) | After1) | t-value2) | P-value2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
I will be interested in the amount of sodium in foods and ingredients. | 3.78 ± 0.92 | 4.43 ± 0.68 | –4.106 | < 0.001 |
I will practice a low-sodium diet to improve my health. | 4.53 ± 0.64 | 4.73 ± 0.55 | –2.243 | 0.031 |
I will purchase fresh foods rather than processed and instant foods. | 4.18 ± 0.68 | 4.43 ± 0.84 | –1.706 | 0.096 |
I will ask for food to be prepared with less salt when dining out. | 2.90 ± 1.06 | 3.60 ± 1.03 | –4.149 | < 0.001 |
I will choose dishes that preserve the natural flavors of ingredients rather than spicy and salty foods. | 3.75 ± 0.67 | 4.30 ± 0.61 | –5.135 | < 0.001 |
I will pay attention to cooking methods that support a low-sodium diet. | 4.33 ± 0.66 | 4.28 ± 0.72 | 0.361 | 0.720 |
I will believe that attempts and interest in reducing sodium intake can lead to social change. | 4.28 ± 0.72 | 4.50 ± 0.55 | –1.940 | 0.060 |
I will choose low-sodium versions of pickled foods and kimchi. | 3.85 ± 0.77 | 4.18 ± 0.87 | –2.010 | 0.051 |
I will opt for steamed or grilled dishes instead of braised dishes. | 4.20 ± 0.65 | 4.30 ± 0.72 | –0.752 | 0.457 |
I will leave the broth and focus on the solid ingredients when eating soup, stew, or ramen. | 4.50 ± 0.75 | 4.68 ± 0.62 | –1.639 | 0.109 |
I will reduce the amount of gochujang or seasoning in bibimbap by half. | 4.03 ± 0.86 | 4.33 ± 0.83 | –1.669 | 0.103 |
I will gradually reduce the amount of soup base in ramen and cook with half the recommended amount. | 3.75 ± 1.19 | 3.93 ± 1.23 | –0.943 | 0.352 |
I will consume fresh vegetables and fruits. | 4.83 ± 0.38 | 4.80 ± 0.52 | 0.274 | 0.785 |
I will not use table salt separately. | 4.60 ± 0.59 | 4.65 ± 0.62 | –0.467 | 0.643 |
I will consciously try to eat food with less seasoning and sauces. | 4.60 ± 0.55 | 4.68 ± 0.57 | –0.684 | 0.498 |
I will check the nutrition labels of processed foods to choose products with lower sodium content. | 4.40 ± 0.63 | 4.43 ± 0.64 | –0.206 | 0.838 |
I will refer to “low-sodium recipes” for guidance when cooking. | 4.05 ± 0.93 | 4.23 ± 0.73 | –1.267 | 0.213 |
Classification | Before1) | After1) | t-value2) | P-value2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
I eat all the broth in soups, stews, noodles, and ramen. | 3.30 ± 1.29 | 4.00 ± 0.88 | –3.264 | 0.002 |
I feel that if food is bland, something is missing, and I am not satisfied. | 2.57 ± 1.12 | 3.43 ± 0.93 | –5.237 | < 0.001 |
I enjoy dishes like donburi, fried rice, bibimbap, and curry rice. | 2.05 ± 0.88 | 2.59 ± 0.90 | –3.651 | 0.001 |
I like simmered dishes that are seasoned just right with soy sauce. | 2.25 ± 0.94 | 2.86 ± 0.90 | –3.588 | 0.001 |
I prefer Japanese or Chinese food over Western food. | 2.81 ± 0.91 | 3.22 ± 0.92 | –2.852 | 0.007 |
I like kimchi more than fresh vegetables. | 2.95 ± 1.27 | 3.16 ± 1.14 | –1.091 | 0.282 |
I enjoy snacks with a salty taste, like potato chips and crackers. | 2.73 ± 1.37 | 3.27 ± 1.07 | –3.424 | 0.002 |
I dine out or order takeout at least twice a week. | 2.49 ± 1.15 | 3.32 ± 1.20 | –3.484 | 0.001 |
I like dried fish or salted mackerel. | 3.14 ± 1.11 | 3.57 ± 1.01 | –2.665 | 0.011 |
I feel incomplete if there are no fermented fish products, like salted cod roe, on the table. | 4.08 ± 1.12 | 4.38 ± 0.86 | –1.766 | 0.086 |
I enjoy spicy and salty foods as snacks while drinking alcoholic. | 2.70 ± 1.33 | 3.49 ± 1.19 | –4.886 | < 0.001 |
I like spreading butter or margarine generously (100% of the bread surface) on bread. | 2.53 ± 1.42 | 3.58 ± 1.32 | –7.666 | < 0.001 |
I usually use homemade soy sauce rather than regular soy sauce. | 3.51 ± 1.26 | 3.24 ± 1.21 | 1.822 | 0.077 |
I habitually add salt or soy sauce before meals. | 3.97 ± 1.26 | 4.38 ± 0.76 | –2.579 | 0.014 |
I immediately add salt or soy sauce at the table if dishes like vegetables or soups are bland. | 3.19 ± 1.49 | 4.19 ± 0.89 | –4.743 | < 0.001 |
I feel that if there is less salt in food, it doesn’t taste good. | 2.69 ± 1.12 | 3.53 ± 1.03 | –5.916 | < 0.001 |
I often use mayonnaise or salad dressing when cooking. | 3.19 ± 1.17 | 3.47 ± 1.06 | –1.303 | 0.201 |
I frequently eat soybean paste soup. | 2.95 ± 1.05 | 3.49 ± 1.02 | –2.941 | 0.006 |
I dip pancakes, fried foods, or sashimi generously in soy sauce (enough to submerge the food). | 3.15 ± 1.25 | 3.92 ± 0.98 | –4.629 | < 0.001 |
I like instant foods (like ham and sausages) or ready-to-eat foods (like 3-minute meals), and ramen. | 2.61 ± 1.24 | 3.08 ± 0.91 | –3.070 | 0.004 |
I eat vegetables with every meal.3) | 2.97 ± 0.96 | 3.46 ± 0.97 | –2.714 | 0.010 |
I eat fruit more than twice a day.3) | 2.54 ± 1.17 | 3.00 ± 1.05 | –2.471 | 0.018 |
I usually check the sodium content on nutrition labels when purchasing food or dining out.3) | 2.44 ± 1.41 | 3.33 ± 1.08 | –4.634 | < 0.001 |
Classification | Before (n = 40) | After (n = 40) | t-value1) | P-value1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energy (kcal) | 2,000.71 ± 912.59 | 1,450.27 ± 711.18 | 4.286 | < 0.001 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 271.44 ± 113.51 | 205.04 ± 107.31 | 4.025 | < 0.001 |
Lipid (g) | 58.45 ± 29.66 | 41.55 ± 21.48 | 4.059 | < 0.001 |
Protein (g) | 72.35 ± 34.47 | 53.21 ± 26.44 | 3.999 | < 0.001 |
Dietary fiber (g) | 23.39 ± 12.11 | 18.20 ± 10.03 | 2.826 | 0.007 |
Vitamin A (ugRAE) | 307.18 ± 118.17 | 233.63 ± 109.61 | 4.012 | < 0.001 |
Vitamin D (ug) | 3.64 ± 2.97 | 2.52 ± 2.27 | 2.278 | 0.028 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 15.89 ± 8.13 | 12.46 ± 7.84 | 3.400 | 0.002 |
Vitamin K (ug) | 113.65 ± 67.20 | 113.47 ± 88.82 | 0.013 | 0.990 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 87.91 ± 41.89 | 87.58 ± 50.86 | 0.047 | 0.963 |
Thiamin (mg) | 1.95 ± 0.92 | 1.39 ± 0.69 | 4.315 | < 0.001 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 1.63 ± 0.69 | 1.18 ± 0.56 | 4.988 | < 0.001 |
Niacin (mg) | 9.99 ± 5.28 | 7.52 ± 3.73 | 3.365 | 0.002 |
Ca (mg) | 549.32 ± 209.32 | 401.47 ± 216.09 | 4.801 | < 0.001 |
P (mg) | 1,107.18 ± 482.17 | 822.28 ± 414.82 | 4.285 | < 0.001 |
Na (mg) | 3,382.37 ± 2,345.57 | 2,119.05 ± 1,326.63 | 4.082 | < 0.001 |
K (mg) | 2,301.83 ± 1,021.15 | 1,845.01 ± 898.53 | 2.956 | 0.005 |
Fe (mg) | 13.44 ± 6.28 | 10.72 ± 5.23 | 3.035 | 0.004 |
Zn (mg) | 12.26 ± 8.74 | 8.03 ± 3.78 | 3.211 | 0.003 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 334.06 ± 186.12 | 236.38 ± 132.69 | 4.283 | < 0.001 |
Characteristics | Classification | Frequency |
---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 8 (20.0) |
Female | 32 (80.0) | |
Age group (year) | 10s | 4 (10.0) |
20s | 26 (65.0) | |
30s | 2 (5.0) | |
40s | 3 (7.5) | |
50+ | 5 (12.5) | |
Family size | 1 | 6 (15.0) |
2 | 1 (2.5) | |
3 | 7 (17.5) | |
4 | 17 (42.5) | |
≥ 5 | 8 (20.0) | |
N/A | 1 (2.5) | |
Occupation | Service and sales | 1 (2.5) |
Clerical | 6 (15.0) | |
Self-employed | 1 (2.5) | |
Professionals | 2 (5.0) | |
Others | 15 (37.5) | |
None | 15 (37.5) | |
Income range (million KRW) | < 1 | 6 (15.0) |
1–2 | 4 (10.0) | |
2–3 | 0 (0.0) | |
3–4 | 9 (22.5) | |
4–5 | 8 (20.0) | |
≥ 5 | 12 (30.0) | |
N/A | 1 (2.5) | |
Education level | Elementary school graduate | 3 (7.5) |
Middle school graduate | 0 (0.0) | |
High school graduate | 21 (52.5) | |
University graduate | 11 (27.5) | |
Graduate school or higher | 3 (7.5) | |
N/A | 2 (5.0) | |
Obesity degree | Underweight |
4 (10.0) |
Normal weight |
23 (57.5) | |
Overweight |
8 (20.0) | |
Obese |
5 (12.5) |
Goal 1: ‘Literacy’ enhancement for sodium reduction |
◀ Emphasize balanced meal intake centered on breakfast |
◀ Intend to improve fruit and vegetable consumption |
◀ Intend to reduce the frequency of eating out |
Goal 2: ‘Competency’ strengthening for sodium reduction |
◀ Choose ingredients to reduce sodium intake |
◀ Practice your own recipes and methods |
◀ Practice healthier menus today than those from yesterday |
Classification | Before |
After |
t-value |
P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
I will be interested in the amount of sodium in foods and ingredients. | 3.78 ± 0.92 | 4.43 ± 0.68 | –4.106 | < 0.001 |
I will practice a low-sodium diet to improve my health. | 4.53 ± 0.64 | 4.73 ± 0.55 | –2.243 | 0.031 |
I will purchase fresh foods rather than processed and instant foods. | 4.18 ± 0.68 | 4.43 ± 0.84 | –1.706 | 0.096 |
I will ask for food to be prepared with less salt when dining out. | 2.90 ± 1.06 | 3.60 ± 1.03 | –4.149 | < 0.001 |
I will choose dishes that preserve the natural flavors of ingredients rather than spicy and salty foods. | 3.75 ± 0.67 | 4.30 ± 0.61 | –5.135 | < 0.001 |
I will pay attention to cooking methods that support a low-sodium diet. | 4.33 ± 0.66 | 4.28 ± 0.72 | 0.361 | 0.720 |
I will believe that attempts and interest in reducing sodium intake can lead to social change. | 4.28 ± 0.72 | 4.50 ± 0.55 | –1.940 | 0.060 |
I will choose low-sodium versions of pickled foods and kimchi. | 3.85 ± 0.77 | 4.18 ± 0.87 | –2.010 | 0.051 |
I will opt for steamed or grilled dishes instead of braised dishes. | 4.20 ± 0.65 | 4.30 ± 0.72 | –0.752 | 0.457 |
I will leave the broth and focus on the solid ingredients when eating soup, stew, or ramen. | 4.50 ± 0.75 | 4.68 ± 0.62 | –1.639 | 0.109 |
I will reduce the amount of gochujang or seasoning in bibimbap by half. | 4.03 ± 0.86 | 4.33 ± 0.83 | –1.669 | 0.103 |
I will gradually reduce the amount of soup base in ramen and cook with half the recommended amount. | 3.75 ± 1.19 | 3.93 ± 1.23 | –0.943 | 0.352 |
I will consume fresh vegetables and fruits. | 4.83 ± 0.38 | 4.80 ± 0.52 | 0.274 | 0.785 |
I will not use table salt separately. | 4.60 ± 0.59 | 4.65 ± 0.62 | –0.467 | 0.643 |
I will consciously try to eat food with less seasoning and sauces. | 4.60 ± 0.55 | 4.68 ± 0.57 | –0.684 | 0.498 |
I will check the nutrition labels of processed foods to choose products with lower sodium content. | 4.40 ± 0.63 | 4.43 ± 0.64 | –0.206 | 0.838 |
I will refer to “low-sodium recipes” for guidance when cooking. | 4.05 ± 0.93 | 4.23 ± 0.73 | –1.267 | 0.213 |
Classification | Before |
After |
t-value |
P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
I eat all the broth in soups, stews, noodles, and ramen. | 3.30 ± 1.29 | 4.00 ± 0.88 | –3.264 | 0.002 |
I feel that if food is bland, something is missing, and I am not satisfied. | 2.57 ± 1.12 | 3.43 ± 0.93 | –5.237 | < 0.001 |
I enjoy dishes like donburi, fried rice, bibimbap, and curry rice. | 2.05 ± 0.88 | 2.59 ± 0.90 | –3.651 | 0.001 |
I like simmered dishes that are seasoned just right with soy sauce. | 2.25 ± 0.94 | 2.86 ± 0.90 | –3.588 | 0.001 |
I prefer Japanese or Chinese food over Western food. | 2.81 ± 0.91 | 3.22 ± 0.92 | –2.852 | 0.007 |
I like kimchi more than fresh vegetables. | 2.95 ± 1.27 | 3.16 ± 1.14 | –1.091 | 0.282 |
I enjoy snacks with a salty taste, like potato chips and crackers. | 2.73 ± 1.37 | 3.27 ± 1.07 | –3.424 | 0.002 |
I dine out or order takeout at least twice a week. | 2.49 ± 1.15 | 3.32 ± 1.20 | –3.484 | 0.001 |
I like dried fish or salted mackerel. | 3.14 ± 1.11 | 3.57 ± 1.01 | –2.665 | 0.011 |
I feel incomplete if there are no fermented fish products, like salted cod roe, on the table. | 4.08 ± 1.12 | 4.38 ± 0.86 | –1.766 | 0.086 |
I enjoy spicy and salty foods as snacks while drinking alcoholic. | 2.70 ± 1.33 | 3.49 ± 1.19 | –4.886 | < 0.001 |
I like spreading butter or margarine generously (100% of the bread surface) on bread. | 2.53 ± 1.42 | 3.58 ± 1.32 | –7.666 | < 0.001 |
I usually use homemade soy sauce rather than regular soy sauce. | 3.51 ± 1.26 | 3.24 ± 1.21 | 1.822 | 0.077 |
I habitually add salt or soy sauce before meals. | 3.97 ± 1.26 | 4.38 ± 0.76 | –2.579 | 0.014 |
I immediately add salt or soy sauce at the table if dishes like vegetables or soups are bland. | 3.19 ± 1.49 | 4.19 ± 0.89 | –4.743 | < 0.001 |
I feel that if there is less salt in food, it doesn’t taste good. | 2.69 ± 1.12 | 3.53 ± 1.03 | –5.916 | < 0.001 |
I often use mayonnaise or salad dressing when cooking. | 3.19 ± 1.17 | 3.47 ± 1.06 | –1.303 | 0.201 |
I frequently eat soybean paste soup. | 2.95 ± 1.05 | 3.49 ± 1.02 | –2.941 | 0.006 |
I dip pancakes, fried foods, or sashimi generously in soy sauce (enough to submerge the food). | 3.15 ± 1.25 | 3.92 ± 0.98 | –4.629 | < 0.001 |
I like instant foods (like ham and sausages) or ready-to-eat foods (like 3-minute meals), and ramen. | 2.61 ± 1.24 | 3.08 ± 0.91 | –3.070 | 0.004 |
I eat vegetables with every meal. |
2.97 ± 0.96 | 3.46 ± 0.97 | –2.714 | 0.010 |
I eat fruit more than twice a day. |
2.54 ± 1.17 | 3.00 ± 1.05 | –2.471 | 0.018 |
I usually check the sodium content on nutrition labels when purchasing food or dining out. |
2.44 ± 1.41 | 3.33 ± 1.08 | –4.634 | < 0.001 |
Classification | Before (n = 40) | After (n = 40) | t-value |
P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energy (kcal) | 2,000.71 ± 912.59 | 1,450.27 ± 711.18 | 4.286 | < 0.001 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 271.44 ± 113.51 | 205.04 ± 107.31 | 4.025 | < 0.001 |
Lipid (g) | 58.45 ± 29.66 | 41.55 ± 21.48 | 4.059 | < 0.001 |
Protein (g) | 72.35 ± 34.47 | 53.21 ± 26.44 | 3.999 | < 0.001 |
Dietary fiber (g) | 23.39 ± 12.11 | 18.20 ± 10.03 | 2.826 | 0.007 |
Vitamin A (ugRAE) | 307.18 ± 118.17 | 233.63 ± 109.61 | 4.012 | < 0.001 |
Vitamin D (ug) | 3.64 ± 2.97 | 2.52 ± 2.27 | 2.278 | 0.028 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 15.89 ± 8.13 | 12.46 ± 7.84 | 3.400 | 0.002 |
Vitamin K (ug) | 113.65 ± 67.20 | 113.47 ± 88.82 | 0.013 | 0.990 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 87.91 ± 41.89 | 87.58 ± 50.86 | 0.047 | 0.963 |
Thiamin (mg) | 1.95 ± 0.92 | 1.39 ± 0.69 | 4.315 | < 0.001 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 1.63 ± 0.69 | 1.18 ± 0.56 | 4.988 | < 0.001 |
Niacin (mg) | 9.99 ± 5.28 | 7.52 ± 3.73 | 3.365 | 0.002 |
Ca (mg) | 549.32 ± 209.32 | 401.47 ± 216.09 | 4.801 | < 0.001 |
P (mg) | 1,107.18 ± 482.17 | 822.28 ± 414.82 | 4.285 | < 0.001 |
Na (mg) | 3,382.37 ± 2,345.57 | 2,119.05 ± 1,326.63 | 4.082 | < 0.001 |
K (mg) | 2,301.83 ± 1,021.15 | 1,845.01 ± 898.53 | 2.956 | 0.005 |
Fe (mg) | 13.44 ± 6.28 | 10.72 ± 5.23 | 3.035 | 0.004 |
Zn (mg) | 12.26 ± 8.74 | 8.03 ± 3.78 | 3.211 | 0.003 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 334.06 ± 186.12 | 236.38 ± 132.69 | 4.283 | < 0.001 |
n (%). N/A, not available. Body mass index (BMI) of <18.5 kg/m2. 18.5 ≤ BMI <23 kg/m2. 23 ≤ BMI <25 kg/m2. BMI of ≥ 25 kg/m2.
Mean ± SD. 1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree. Paired t-test.
Mean ± SD. 1 = Strongly agree; 2 = agree; 3 = neutral; 4 = disagree; 5 = strongly disagree. Paired t-test. Reversed scale (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree).
Mean ± SD. Paired t-test.