, 최수경2)
, 김민서3)
, 임성현3)
, 김정원4),†
, Sookyung Choi2)
, Minseo Kim3)
, Seonghyun Lim3)
, Jeong-Weon Kim4),†
1)국립군산대학교 식품영양학과 부교수
2)국립군산대학교 식품영양학과 대학원생
3)국립군산대학교 식품영양학과 학부생
4)서울교육대학교 생활과학교육과 교수
1)Associate Professor, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kunsan National University, Gunsan, Korea
2)Master’s Student, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kunsan National University, Gunsan, Korea
3)Undergraduate Student, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kunsan National University, Gunsan, Korea
4)Professor, Department of Science and Technology Education for Life, Seoul National University of Education, Seoul, Korea
© 2025 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
This research was supported by a grant (25192MFDS005) from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety for 2025.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank all participants who took the time to complete the survey and interviews.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data are available upon request from the corresponding author.
| Dietary knowledge items1) | Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dietary knowledge items | ||||
| My child understands that food plays an important role in our body | 4.07 ± 0.75 | 4.04 ± 0.70 | 4.08 ± 0.79 | –0.40 |
| My child can distinguish between healthy and unhealthy foods | 3.85 ± 0.79 | 3.68 ± 0.79 | 4.00 ± 0.76 | –2.90** |
| My child can identify types of foods such as grains and vegetables | 3.76 ± 0.78 | 3.68 ± 0.74 | 3.83 ± 0.81 | –1.36 |
| My child understands that overeating causes stomachache and is not good for health | 3.88 ± 0.77 | 3.78 ± 0.74 | 3.97 ± 0.80 | –1.79 |
| My child knows that it is important to eat a balanced diet | 4.15 ± 0.74 | 4.09 ± 0.76 | 4.20 ± 0.74 | –1.07 |
| Dietary attitude items2) | ||||
| My child has the willingness to try various foods | 3.35 ± 0.97 | 3.26 ± 0.94 | 3.43 ± 1.00 | –1.23 |
| My child shows a positive attitude toward new foods | 3.14 ± 1.01 | 3.04 ± 0.97 | 3.23 ± 1.04 | –1.29 |
| My child tries not to be picky with food | 3.26 ± 1.02 | 3.20 ± 0.99 | 3.31 ± 1.05 | –0.76 |
| My child tries not to leave food uneaten | 3.42 ± 0.98 | 3.16 ± 0.94 | 3.65 ± 0.97 | –3.63*** |
| My child enjoys eating meals with friends and family | 3.99 ± 0.70 | 3.92 ± 0.71 | 4.05 ± 0.70 | –1.33 |
| Dietary practice items of preschool children | ||||
| My child washes hands thoroughly before and after meals | 4.06 ± 0.75 | 4.04 ± 0.75 | 4.08 ± 0.76 | –0.31 |
| My child maintains proper posture during meals | 3.48 ± 0.93 | 3.30 ± 0.90 | 3.63 ± 0.94 | –2.56* |
| My child eats a variety of foods without picky eating | 3.31 ± 0.99 | 3.23 ± 1.00 | 3.38 ± 0.99 | –1.02 |
| My child eats slowly and chews thoroughly during meals | 3.64 ± 0.82 | 3.60 ± 0.79 | 3.68 ± 0.85 | –0.72 |
| My child eats meals regularly without skipping | 3.79 ± 0.85 | 3.76 ± 0.81 | 3.81 ± 0.88 | –0.46 |
| My child chooses healthy snacks | 3.13 ± 0.99 | 3.09 ± 1.06 | 3.16 ± 0.92 | –0.54 |
| My child stops eating when full | 4.00 ± 0.67 | 3.97 ± 0.63 | 4.02 ± 0.70 | –0.54 |
| Children’s food and cooking experience | ||||
| My child is interested in where foods come from | 3.27 ± 0.95 | 3.11 ± 0.85 | 3.41 ± 1.01 | –2.27* |
| My child enjoys activities such as cultivating vegetables | 3.66 ± 0.97 | 3.64 ± 1.01 | 3.67 ± 0.93 | –0.23 |
| My child participates joyfully in cooking activities | 4.19 ± 0.70 | 4.22 ± 0.71 | 4.16 ± 0.69 | 0.64 |
| My child is able to prepare simple dishes | 3.82 ± 0.81 | 3.76 ± 0.88 | 3.87 ± 0.76 | –0.97 |
| My child enjoys experiencing foods of different colors and flavors | 3.54 ± 0.93 | 3.51 ± 0.94 | 3.57 ± 0.94 | –0.42 |
| My child likes to participate in grocery shopping | 4.15 ± 0.71 | 4.15 ± 0.73 | 4.15 ± 0.70 | –0.02 |
| My child enjoys helping with table setting | 3.65 ± 0.91 | 3.64 ± 0.89 | 3.66 ± 0.93 | –0.17 |
Mean ± SD.
1)5-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.
2)An independent sample t-test was performed after verifying the homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
*P < 0.05,
**P < 0.01,
***P < 0.001.
| Thematic dietary and nutrition education for young children1),2) | Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t3) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Formation of personal hygiene habits (n = 197) | 4.22 ± 0.75 | 4.26 ± 0.73 | 4.18 ± 0.76 | 0.66 |
| Education on meal rules (n = 193) | 4.02 ± 0.82 | 4.00 ± 0.83 | 4.03 ± 0.81 | –0.25 |
| Education for forming balanced eating habits (n = 195) | 3.96 ± 0.81 | 3.94 ± 0.78 | 3.98 ± 0.84 | –0.39 |
| Education on proper table manners (n = 193) | 3.94 ± 0.82 | 3.92 ± 0.77 | 3.96 ± 0.86 | –0.31 |
| Reducing food waste and protecting the environment (n = 189) | 3.93 ± 0.91 | 3.88 ± 0.91 | 3.98 ± 0.91 | –0.80 |
| Education on secondary food processing (n = 187) | 3.93 ± 0.91 | 3.74 ± 0.94 | 3.90 ± 0.83 | –1.21 |
| Choosing healthy snacks (n = 188) | 3.80 ± 0.91 | 3.69 ± 1.02 | 3.89 ± 0.80 | –1.46** |
| Food safety education (n = 178) | 3.67 ± 1.01 | 3.43 ± 1.04 | 3.89 ± 0.94 | –3.09 |
| Cooking practice activities (n = 195) | 3.67 ± 0.86 | 3.62 ± 0.86 | 3.71 ± 0.86 | –0.67 |
| Eating less salty foods (low-salt education) (n = 176) | 3.62 ± 0.91 | 3.43 ± 0.93 | 3.77 ± 0.86 | –2.54 |
| Understanding the food production process (n = 186) | 3.56 ± 0.87 | 3.45 ± 0.83 | 3.65 ± 0.90 | –1.56 |
| Eating less fatty foods (low-fat education) (n = 174) | 3.55 ± 0.96 | 3.29 ± 1.01 | 3.72 ± 0.91 | –2.99 |
| Eating less sweet foods (low-sugar education) (n = 174) | 3.53 ± 0.98 | 3.29 ± 0.99 | 3.75 ± 0.88 | –3.20 |
| Traditional food and seasonal food culture of Korea (n = 180) | 3.48 ± 0.92 | 3.38 ± 0.92 | 3.56 ± 0.92 | –1.33 |
| Understanding food labeling and storage methods (n = 170) | 3.42 ± 1.05 | 3.14 ± 1.05 | 3.66 ± 0.99 | –3.33 |
Mean ± SD.
1)5-point Likert scale: 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = very frequently.
2)Responses of “Do not know (6)” were excluded.
3)An independent sample t-test was performed after verifying the homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
**P < 0.01.
| Category | Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t/χ2 1),2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Satisfaction | ||||
| Current amount of education provided3) | 3.55 ± 0.901) | 3.33 ± 0.92 | 3.74 ± 0.84 | –3.26** |
| Overall quality of current education content4) | 3.63 ± 0.91 | 3.43 ± 0.95 | 3.81 ± 0.84 | –3.04** |
| Needs5) | ||||
| Expansion of dietary and nutrition education time | 3.39 ± 0.94 | 3.47 ± 0.99 | 3.32 ± 0.90 | 1.10 |
| Diversification of dietary and nutrition education topics and content | 3.55 ± 0.88 | 3.62 ± 0.91 | 3.49 ± 0.84 | 1.02 |
| Increase in activity-based education (experiential, play-based, etc.) | 3.65 ± 0.88 | 3.71 ± 0.92 | 3.59 ± 0.83 | 0.95 |
| Home-linked education (parent education, provision of materials, etc.) | 3.59 ± 0.84 | 3.69 ± 0.85 | 3.49 ± 0.82 | 1.70 |
| Utilization of digital media (video, AR, VR, etc.) | 3.30 ± 0.91 | 3.23 ± 0.96 | 3.35 ± 0.86 | –0.89 |
| Appropriate frequency of education | 5.25 | |||
| More than once a week | 23 (11.5) | 9 (9.6) | 14 (13.2) | |
| 2–3 times a month | 63 (31.5) | 32 (34.0) | 31 (29.2) | |
| Once a month | 65 (32.5) | 33 (35.1) | 32 (30.2) | |
| 3–4 times per semester | 34 (17.0) | 11 (11.7) | 23 (21.7) | |
| Twice or fewer per semester | 15 (7.5) | 9 (9.6) | 6 (5.7) | |
| Subjects that should be strengthened in dietary and nutrition education | 5.65 | |||
| Proper table manners and eating rules | 34 (17.0) | 11 (11.7) | 23 (21.7) | |
| Formation of healthy eating habits | 66 (33.0) | 34 (36.2) | 32 (30.2) | |
| Food safety and hygiene education | 34 (17.0) | 18 (19.1) | 16 (15.1) | |
| Food exploration and sensory experiences | 30 (15.0) | 12 (12.8) | 18 (17.0) | |
| Cooking activities | 13 (6.5) | 8 (8.5) | 5 (4.7) | |
| Environment and sustainable diets | 23 (11.5) | 11 (11.7) | 12 (11.3) | |
| Effective teaching methods | 3.46 | |||
| Experiential activities (e.g., gardening, cooking practice) | 102 (51.0) | 52 (55.3) | 50 (47.2) | |
| Play-based education (e.g., food models, role play) | 35 (17.5) | 18 (19.1) | 17 (16.0) | |
| Media-based education (e.g., animation, VR, AR) | 8 (4.0) | 3 (3.2) | 5 (4.7) | |
| Education during mealtime | 47 (23.5) | 17 (18.1) | 30 (28.3) | |
| Home-linked education | 8 (4.0) | 4 (4.3) | 4 (3.8) | |
| Required educational support | 1.70 | |||
| Provision of dietary education materials for practice at home | 60 (30.0) | 25 (26.6) | 35 (33.0) | |
| Expansion of parent education and information sessions | 6 (3.0) | 3 (3.2) | 3 (2.8) | |
| Operation of dietary education programs linking institutions and homes | 117 (58.5) | 56 (59.6) | 61 (57.5) | |
| Provision of online/mobile educational content for parents | 17 (8.5) | 10 (10.6) | 7 (6.6) | |
| Home-linked education | ||||
| Current status of home-linked dietary and nutrition education6) | 3.60 ± 0.82 | 3.50 ± 0.84 | 3.68 ± 0.80 | –1.55 |
| Utilization of home-linked dietary and nutrition education materials7) | 3.00 ± 0.90 | 2.83 ± 0.86 | 3.15 ± 0.91 | –2.55* |
n (%) or Mean ± SD.
1)For continuous variables, an independent sample t-test was conducted after verifying the homogeneity of variance using Levene’s test.
2)For categorical variables, a chi-square (χ2) test was performed to examine differences between age groups. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
3)5-point Likert scale: 1 = very insufficient, 2 = insufficient, 3 = neutral, 4 = sufficient, 5 = very sufficient.
4)5-point Likert scale: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = moderate, 4 = high, 5 = very high.
5)5-point Likert scale: 1 = not necessary at all, 2 = slightly necessary, 3 = moderately necessary, 4 = necessary, 5 = very necessary.
6)5-point Likert scale: 1 = never received, 2 = rarely received, 3 = occasionally received, 4 = frequently received, 5 = very frequently received.
7)5-point Likert scale: 1 = never utilized, 2 = rarely utilized, 3 = occasionally utilized, 4 = frequently utilized, 5 = very frequently utilized.
*P < 0.05,
**P < 0.01.
| Items on the needs and perceptions of using digital media in dietary and nutrition education | Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t/χ2 1),2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Necessity and helpfulness of digital media-based dietary and nutrition education | ||||
| Perceived necessity of dietary and nutrition education using digital media3) | 3.38 ± 0.80 | 3.34 ± 0.86 | 3.41 ± 0.75 | –0.57 |
| Helpfulness of digital media-based dietary and nutrition education in forming children’s eating habits4) | 3.77 ± 0.71 | 3.76 ± 0.77 | 3.77 ± 0.65 | –0.18 |
| Preferred formats of dietary and nutrition education using digital media | 8.50 | |||
| Video education (animations, educational videos) | 54 (27.0) | 29 (30.9) | 25 (23.6) | |
| Nutrition education apps (diet records, tailored nutrition information) | 31 (15.5) | 14 (14.9) | 17 (16.0) | |
| Nutrition education games (quizzes) | 42 (21.0) | 12 (12.8) | 30 (28.3) | |
| Nutrition-specific search portals (child-customized nutrition information) | 31 (15.5) | 15 (16.0) | 16 (15.1) | |
| Immersive education using AR/VR technology (e.g., virtual cooking) | 42 (21.0) | 24 (25.5) | 18 (17.0) | |
| Most effective methods of using digital media | 4.58 | |||
| Use during kindergarten/daycare classes | 57 (28.5) | 29 (30.9) | 28 (26.4) | |
| Use in connection with home, together with parents | 27 (13.5) | 12 (12.8) | 15 (14.2) | |
| Use in connection with mealtime | 60 (30.0) | 22 (23.4) | 38 (35.8) | |
| Use in connection with play activities | 54 (27.0) | 30 (31.9) | 24 (22.6) | |
| Other | 2 (1.0) | 1 (1.1) | 1 (0.9) | |
| Expected effects of dietary and nutrition education using digital media | 1.17 | |||
| Stimulating children’s interest and enhancing learning concentration | 76 (38.0) | 37 (39.4) | 39 (36.8) | |
| Effective delivery of nutrition information through audiovisual materials | 38 (19.0) | 20 (21.3) | 18 (17.0) | |
| Possibility of home-based practice together with parents | 57 (28.5) | 24 (25.5) | 33 (31.1) | |
| Enhanced experiential learning effects through various interactive education (games, VR, AR) | 29 (14.5) | 13 (13.8) | 16 (15.1) | |
| Support needed for the effective use of digital media in dietary and nutrition education | 3.29 | |||
| Diversification of educational content (animations, apps, games, etc.) | 66 (33.0) | 34 (36.2) | 32 (30.2) | |
| Provision of home-use manuals for parents | 34 (17.0) | 13 (13.8) | 21 (19.8) | |
| Expansion of digital education equipment in kindergartens and daycare centers | 43 (21.5) | 17 (18.1) | 26 (24.5) | |
| Establishment of official platforms linked to dietary and nutrition education | 51 (25.5) | 27 (28.7) | 24 (22.6) | |
| Other | 6 (3.0) | 3 (3.2) | 3 (2.8) |
n (%) or Mean ± SD.
AR, augmented reality; VR, virtual reality.
AR, augmented reality; VR, virtual reality.
1)For continuous variables, an independent sample t-test was conducted after verifying the homogeneity of variance using Levene’s test.
2)A chi-square (χ2) test was performed to examine differences between age groups. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
3)Each item was measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “Not necessary at all (1)” to “Very necessary (5).”
4)Each item was measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “Not helpful at all (1)” to “Very helpful (5).”
| Quantitative survey (n = 200) | Focus group interviews (n = 15) | |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||
| Man | 13 (6.5) | - |
| Woman | 187 (93.5) | 15 (100) |
| Relation to child | ||
| Mother | 169 (84.5) | 15 (100) |
| Father | 10 (5.0) | - |
| Grandparents | 4 (2.0) | - |
| Relatives | 17 (8.5) | - |
| Parent age group (year) | ||
| ≤ 29 | 6 (3.0) | - |
| 30s | 105 (52.5) | 12 (80.0) |
| 40s | 79 (39.5) | 3 (20.0) |
| ≥ 50 | 10 (5.0) | - |
| Education level | ||
| High school or less | 37 (18.5) | 2 (13.3) |
| College | 54 (27.0) | 3 (20.0) |
| University | 96 (48.0) | 8 (53.3) |
| Graduate school | 13 (6.5) | 2 (13.3) |
| Child’s age (year) | ||
| 3 | 53 (26.5) | 4 (26.7) |
| 4 | 41 (20.5) | 8 (53.3) |
| 5 | 61 (30.5) | 1 (6.7) |
| ≥ 6 | 45 (22.5) | 2 (13.3) |
| Residence, region | ||
| Seoul | 40 (20.0) | - |
| Gyeonggido/Chungcheongdo | 50 (25.0) | - |
| Gyeongsangdo | 44 (22.0) | - |
| Jeollado/Jejudo | 66 (33.0) | 15 (100) |
| Dietary knowledge items |
Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dietary knowledge items | ||||
| My child understands that food plays an important role in our body | 4.07 ± 0.75 | 4.04 ± 0.70 | 4.08 ± 0.79 | –0.40 |
| My child can distinguish between healthy and unhealthy foods | 3.85 ± 0.79 | 3.68 ± 0.79 | 4.00 ± 0.76 | –2.90 |
| My child can identify types of foods such as grains and vegetables | 3.76 ± 0.78 | 3.68 ± 0.74 | 3.83 ± 0.81 | –1.36 |
| My child understands that overeating causes stomachache and is not good for health | 3.88 ± 0.77 | 3.78 ± 0.74 | 3.97 ± 0.80 | –1.79 |
| My child knows that it is important to eat a balanced diet | 4.15 ± 0.74 | 4.09 ± 0.76 | 4.20 ± 0.74 | –1.07 |
| Dietary attitude items |
||||
| My child has the willingness to try various foods | 3.35 ± 0.97 | 3.26 ± 0.94 | 3.43 ± 1.00 | –1.23 |
| My child shows a positive attitude toward new foods | 3.14 ± 1.01 | 3.04 ± 0.97 | 3.23 ± 1.04 | –1.29 |
| My child tries not to be picky with food | 3.26 ± 1.02 | 3.20 ± 0.99 | 3.31 ± 1.05 | –0.76 |
| My child tries not to leave food uneaten | 3.42 ± 0.98 | 3.16 ± 0.94 | 3.65 ± 0.97 | –3.63 |
| My child enjoys eating meals with friends and family | 3.99 ± 0.70 | 3.92 ± 0.71 | 4.05 ± 0.70 | –1.33 |
| Dietary practice items of preschool children | ||||
| My child washes hands thoroughly before and after meals | 4.06 ± 0.75 | 4.04 ± 0.75 | 4.08 ± 0.76 | –0.31 |
| My child maintains proper posture during meals | 3.48 ± 0.93 | 3.30 ± 0.90 | 3.63 ± 0.94 | –2.56 |
| My child eats a variety of foods without picky eating | 3.31 ± 0.99 | 3.23 ± 1.00 | 3.38 ± 0.99 | –1.02 |
| My child eats slowly and chews thoroughly during meals | 3.64 ± 0.82 | 3.60 ± 0.79 | 3.68 ± 0.85 | –0.72 |
| My child eats meals regularly without skipping | 3.79 ± 0.85 | 3.76 ± 0.81 | 3.81 ± 0.88 | –0.46 |
| My child chooses healthy snacks | 3.13 ± 0.99 | 3.09 ± 1.06 | 3.16 ± 0.92 | –0.54 |
| My child stops eating when full | 4.00 ± 0.67 | 3.97 ± 0.63 | 4.02 ± 0.70 | –0.54 |
| Children’s food and cooking experience | ||||
| My child is interested in where foods come from | 3.27 ± 0.95 | 3.11 ± 0.85 | 3.41 ± 1.01 | –2.27 |
| My child enjoys activities such as cultivating vegetables | 3.66 ± 0.97 | 3.64 ± 1.01 | 3.67 ± 0.93 | –0.23 |
| My child participates joyfully in cooking activities | 4.19 ± 0.70 | 4.22 ± 0.71 | 4.16 ± 0.69 | 0.64 |
| My child is able to prepare simple dishes | 3.82 ± 0.81 | 3.76 ± 0.88 | 3.87 ± 0.76 | –0.97 |
| My child enjoys experiencing foods of different colors and flavors | 3.54 ± 0.93 | 3.51 ± 0.94 | 3.57 ± 0.94 | –0.42 |
| My child likes to participate in grocery shopping | 4.15 ± 0.71 | 4.15 ± 0.73 | 4.15 ± 0.70 | –0.02 |
| My child enjoys helping with table setting | 3.65 ± 0.91 | 3.64 ± 0.89 | 3.66 ± 0.93 | –0.17 |
| Thematic dietary and nutrition education for young children |
Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Formation of personal hygiene habits (n = 197) | 4.22 ± 0.75 | 4.26 ± 0.73 | 4.18 ± 0.76 | 0.66 |
| Education on meal rules (n = 193) | 4.02 ± 0.82 | 4.00 ± 0.83 | 4.03 ± 0.81 | –0.25 |
| Education for forming balanced eating habits (n = 195) | 3.96 ± 0.81 | 3.94 ± 0.78 | 3.98 ± 0.84 | –0.39 |
| Education on proper table manners (n = 193) | 3.94 ± 0.82 | 3.92 ± 0.77 | 3.96 ± 0.86 | –0.31 |
| Reducing food waste and protecting the environment (n = 189) | 3.93 ± 0.91 | 3.88 ± 0.91 | 3.98 ± 0.91 | –0.80 |
| Education on secondary food processing (n = 187) | 3.93 ± 0.91 | 3.74 ± 0.94 | 3.90 ± 0.83 | –1.21 |
| Choosing healthy snacks (n = 188) | 3.80 ± 0.91 | 3.69 ± 1.02 | 3.89 ± 0.80 | –1.46 |
| Food safety education (n = 178) | 3.67 ± 1.01 | 3.43 ± 1.04 | 3.89 ± 0.94 | –3.09 |
| Cooking practice activities (n = 195) | 3.67 ± 0.86 | 3.62 ± 0.86 | 3.71 ± 0.86 | –0.67 |
| Eating less salty foods (low-salt education) (n = 176) | 3.62 ± 0.91 | 3.43 ± 0.93 | 3.77 ± 0.86 | –2.54 |
| Understanding the food production process (n = 186) | 3.56 ± 0.87 | 3.45 ± 0.83 | 3.65 ± 0.90 | –1.56 |
| Eating less fatty foods (low-fat education) (n = 174) | 3.55 ± 0.96 | 3.29 ± 1.01 | 3.72 ± 0.91 | –2.99 |
| Eating less sweet foods (low-sugar education) (n = 174) | 3.53 ± 0.98 | 3.29 ± 0.99 | 3.75 ± 0.88 | –3.20 |
| Traditional food and seasonal food culture of Korea (n = 180) | 3.48 ± 0.92 | 3.38 ± 0.92 | 3.56 ± 0.92 | –1.33 |
| Understanding food labeling and storage methods (n = 170) | 3.42 ± 1.05 | 3.14 ± 1.05 | 3.66 ± 0.99 | –3.33 |
| Category | Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t/χ2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Satisfaction | ||||
| Current amount of education provided |
3.55 ± 0.90 |
3.33 ± 0.92 | 3.74 ± 0.84 | –3.26 |
| Overall quality of current education content |
3.63 ± 0.91 | 3.43 ± 0.95 | 3.81 ± 0.84 | –3.04 |
| Needs |
||||
| Expansion of dietary and nutrition education time | 3.39 ± 0.94 | 3.47 ± 0.99 | 3.32 ± 0.90 | 1.10 |
| Diversification of dietary and nutrition education topics and content | 3.55 ± 0.88 | 3.62 ± 0.91 | 3.49 ± 0.84 | 1.02 |
| Increase in activity-based education (experiential, play-based, etc.) | 3.65 ± 0.88 | 3.71 ± 0.92 | 3.59 ± 0.83 | 0.95 |
| Home-linked education (parent education, provision of materials, etc.) | 3.59 ± 0.84 | 3.69 ± 0.85 | 3.49 ± 0.82 | 1.70 |
| Utilization of digital media (video, AR, VR, etc.) | 3.30 ± 0.91 | 3.23 ± 0.96 | 3.35 ± 0.86 | –0.89 |
| Appropriate frequency of education | 5.25 | |||
| More than once a week | 23 (11.5) | 9 (9.6) | 14 (13.2) | |
| 2–3 times a month | 63 (31.5) | 32 (34.0) | 31 (29.2) | |
| Once a month | 65 (32.5) | 33 (35.1) | 32 (30.2) | |
| 3–4 times per semester | 34 (17.0) | 11 (11.7) | 23 (21.7) | |
| Twice or fewer per semester | 15 (7.5) | 9 (9.6) | 6 (5.7) | |
| Subjects that should be strengthened in dietary and nutrition education | 5.65 | |||
| Proper table manners and eating rules | 34 (17.0) | 11 (11.7) | 23 (21.7) | |
| Formation of healthy eating habits | 66 (33.0) | 34 (36.2) | 32 (30.2) | |
| Food safety and hygiene education | 34 (17.0) | 18 (19.1) | 16 (15.1) | |
| Food exploration and sensory experiences | 30 (15.0) | 12 (12.8) | 18 (17.0) | |
| Cooking activities | 13 (6.5) | 8 (8.5) | 5 (4.7) | |
| Environment and sustainable diets | 23 (11.5) | 11 (11.7) | 12 (11.3) | |
| Effective teaching methods | 3.46 | |||
| Experiential activities (e.g., gardening, cooking practice) | 102 (51.0) | 52 (55.3) | 50 (47.2) | |
| Play-based education (e.g., food models, role play) | 35 (17.5) | 18 (19.1) | 17 (16.0) | |
| Media-based education (e.g., animation, VR, AR) | 8 (4.0) | 3 (3.2) | 5 (4.7) | |
| Education during mealtime | 47 (23.5) | 17 (18.1) | 30 (28.3) | |
| Home-linked education | 8 (4.0) | 4 (4.3) | 4 (3.8) | |
| Required educational support | 1.70 | |||
| Provision of dietary education materials for practice at home | 60 (30.0) | 25 (26.6) | 35 (33.0) | |
| Expansion of parent education and information sessions | 6 (3.0) | 3 (3.2) | 3 (2.8) | |
| Operation of dietary education programs linking institutions and homes | 117 (58.5) | 56 (59.6) | 61 (57.5) | |
| Provision of online/mobile educational content for parents | 17 (8.5) | 10 (10.6) | 7 (6.6) | |
| Home-linked education | ||||
| Current status of home-linked dietary and nutrition education |
3.60 ± 0.82 | 3.50 ± 0.84 | 3.68 ± 0.80 | –1.55 |
| Utilization of home-linked dietary and nutrition education materials |
3.00 ± 0.90 | 2.83 ± 0.86 | 3.15 ± 0.91 | –2.55 |
| Items on the needs and perceptions of using digital media in dietary and nutrition education | Total (n = 200) | Age 3–4 years (n = 94) | Age 5–6 years and above (n = 106) | t/χ2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Necessity and helpfulness of digital media-based dietary and nutrition education | ||||
| Perceived necessity of dietary and nutrition education using digital media |
3.38 ± 0.80 | 3.34 ± 0.86 | 3.41 ± 0.75 | –0.57 |
| Helpfulness of digital media-based dietary and nutrition education in forming children’s eating habits |
3.77 ± 0.71 | 3.76 ± 0.77 | 3.77 ± 0.65 | –0.18 |
| Preferred formats of dietary and nutrition education using digital media | 8.50 | |||
| Video education (animations, educational videos) | 54 (27.0) | 29 (30.9) | 25 (23.6) | |
| Nutrition education apps (diet records, tailored nutrition information) | 31 (15.5) | 14 (14.9) | 17 (16.0) | |
| Nutrition education games (quizzes) | 42 (21.0) | 12 (12.8) | 30 (28.3) | |
| Nutrition-specific search portals (child-customized nutrition information) | 31 (15.5) | 15 (16.0) | 16 (15.1) | |
| Immersive education using AR/VR technology (e.g., virtual cooking) | 42 (21.0) | 24 (25.5) | 18 (17.0) | |
| Most effective methods of using digital media | 4.58 | |||
| Use during kindergarten/daycare classes | 57 (28.5) | 29 (30.9) | 28 (26.4) | |
| Use in connection with home, together with parents | 27 (13.5) | 12 (12.8) | 15 (14.2) | |
| Use in connection with mealtime | 60 (30.0) | 22 (23.4) | 38 (35.8) | |
| Use in connection with play activities | 54 (27.0) | 30 (31.9) | 24 (22.6) | |
| Other | 2 (1.0) | 1 (1.1) | 1 (0.9) | |
| Expected effects of dietary and nutrition education using digital media | 1.17 | |||
| Stimulating children’s interest and enhancing learning concentration | 76 (38.0) | 37 (39.4) | 39 (36.8) | |
| Effective delivery of nutrition information through audiovisual materials | 38 (19.0) | 20 (21.3) | 18 (17.0) | |
| Possibility of home-based practice together with parents | 57 (28.5) | 24 (25.5) | 33 (31.1) | |
| Enhanced experiential learning effects through various interactive education (games, VR, AR) | 29 (14.5) | 13 (13.8) | 16 (15.1) | |
| Support needed for the effective use of digital media in dietary and nutrition education | 3.29 | |||
| Diversification of educational content (animations, apps, games, etc.) | 66 (33.0) | 34 (36.2) | 32 (30.2) | |
| Provision of home-use manuals for parents | 34 (17.0) | 13 (13.8) | 21 (19.8) | |
| Expansion of digital education equipment in kindergartens and daycare centers | 43 (21.5) | 17 (18.1) | 26 (24.5) | |
| Establishment of official platforms linked to dietary and nutrition education | 51 (25.5) | 27 (28.7) | 24 (22.6) | |
| Other | 6 (3.0) | 3 (3.2) | 3 (2.8) |
| Ecological level | Key qualitative findings | Issues identified | Representative quotes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Individual | • Preference for sweet and processed foods (donuts, jelly, yogurt, juice) | • Strong tendency toward picky eating | • “My child doesn’t eat fruit but frequently consumes chocolate or juice.” |
| • Picky eating influenced by texture (crispness), color (red = spicy), and visibility (rejecting vegetables when visible) | • Nutritional education effects are temporary | • “My child thinks anything red must be spicy.” | |
| • Food acceptance changes by developmental stage and context | • “My child tends to keep food in their mouth without chewing.” | ||
| • “My child is very picky—only eats rice even after trying blending or decorations.” | |||
| • “If carrots are visible, my child refuses, but eats when finely chopped.” | |||
| Interpersonal | • Parental dietary habits and cooking styles have strong influence | • Transmission of parents’ picky eating | • “My child eats well because the father eats a balanced diet.” |
| • Modeling and competition among siblings and peers | • Lack of teacher expertise and limited teaching time | • “Twins/classmates compete and copy each other.” | |
| • Teachers’ dietary education remains superficial | • “Cooking classes are led by non-specialists and mostly simple sensory activities.” | ||
| • “Teachers just say ‘This is good for your body’ during meals.” | |||
| Institutional/organizational | • Experiential learning (gardening, cooking) and play-based activities (stamp games, etc.) effective | • Activities are event-based and one-off | • “After growing and making kimchi myself, my child gradually started eating it.” |
| • Cyclic structure ‘Harvest → Home cooking → Photo sharing → Institutional reuse’ strengthens learning | • Education quality varies by size and principal’s philosophy | • “Gardening allows ongoing contact, not just a one-time activity.” | |
| • Some preschools strengthen parent links through menu sharing or helper programs | • Small centers lack resources and space | • “We cook at home with produce from the center and share photos; children eat better.” | |
| • “It was great for the children to become familiar with various foods by directly seeing and touching different vegetables and doing stamp activities while learning to eat a balanced diet.” | |||
| • “My child feels a strong sense of achievement when cooking for parents.” | |||
| • “Storybooks are effective—after reading about broccoli, my child asked to buy it.” | |||
| • “Parents rarely read printed newsletters; they prefer simple menus or visuals.” | |||
| • “Paper newsletters are less effective; child-led materials work better.” | |||
| • “Center food education is often event-like.” | |||
| • “An app for recipe sharing or home-based programs would be helpful.” | |||
| Community | • Programs from Child-care Foodservice Management Centers promote behavioral change | • Limited visits to centers (1–2 times per year) | • “After a grocery visit, my child chose and cooked bean sprouts they used to refuse.” |
| • Local food stores and farm activities expand acceptance of new foods | • Differences in how local resources are utilized | • “After learning at the Center, my child said, ‘I should eat vegetables today.” | |
| • “My child, who doesn’t eat fruit at home, ate strawberries during the strawberry farm experience.” “Children ate grapes proudly after harvesting them themselves.” | |||
| Policy/societal | • Educational gaps among institutions → need for standardization | • Lack of institutionalization and standard guidance | • “Take-home cooking kits (rice cake, pizza, etc.) were very helpful.” |
| • Limited home linkage → request for recipe books or cooking kits | • Insufficient continuity of materials or kits | • “Frequency and content depend on the director’s philosophy—standard guidelines needed.” | |
| • Parents highly interested in monitoring actual intake | • Limited opportunities for parent observation | • “Although newsletters are provided, actual preparation and serving are not shared; we’d like observation opportunities.” | |
| • Digital media education effective when short and interactive; worry about overexposure | • “In digital lessons on balanced diets, children often don’t recognize real vegetables—visual rewards like color charts motivate them; providing review worksheets would help.” | ||
| • “Since most digital media involve one-way communication, short videos, puzzles, or OX quizzes that allow interactive engagement are more effective.” |
| Domain of need | Key quantitative findings | Qualitative supplement (focus group interview quotes) | Integrated implications |
|---|---|---|---|
| Extension of education time | • Average 3.39 ± 0.94 (perceived as moderately necessary or higher) | • “Experiential activities at daycare centers feel like one-time events. It would be better if they were included regularly in the curriculum.” | • Current time is insufficient → need for regular and continuous implementation within the official curriculum |
| Diversification and standardization of educational topics | • Average 3.55 ± 0.88 (high demand) | • “The frequency and type of education vary depending on the director’s philosophy. It would be good to have unified guidelines.” | • Resolve topic imbalance → develop standardized educational guidelines and curriculum |
| • High performance in ‘table manners and rules’, but relatively low in ‘low-salt/low-sugar’ education | • “Teachers just say ‘this is healthy’ during meals, nothing more.” | ||
| Expansion of experiential and play-based learning | • Average 3.65 ± 0.88 (highest demand) | • “The cycle of harvest → home cooking → photo sharing → feedback to the center is very effective.” | • Institutionalize participatory and experiential education; introduce and expand the cyclical model (growing–cooking–sharing) |
| • “Watching the plants grow in the garden helps children develop familiarity.” | |||
| Strengthening home-institution linkage | • Average 3.59 ± 0.84 (high demand) | • “If there’s a recipe book or kit, we actually try it even if it’s bothersome.” | • Provide recipe books, experience kits, and assignment-based materials; encourage regular photo sharing; establish a home–institution linkage platform/app |
| • “Paper materials aren’t very effective; child-led supplementary materials are more helpful.” | |||
| Utilization of digital media | • Average 3.30 ± 0.91 (moderate level) | • “Short videos, puzzles, or OX quizzes work well as interactive content.” | • Consider concerns about overexposure → use interactive digital content under 5 minutes; provide digital review materials for home learning |
| • Expected effects: increased engagement and concentration | |||
| Opportunities for parental participation | (No quantitative items; emphasized in qualitative data) | • “I’d like to actually see how much my child eats.” | • Institutionalize meal observation programs; provide feedback on actual food intake and disclose cooking processes |
| • “I’d like to observe the cooking and meal-serving process.” | |||
| Enhancement of teacher expertise and training | (No quantitative items; emphasized in qualitative data) | • “Cooking classes remain at just ‘touch and see’ level.” | • Strengthen collaboration with external experts; provide teacher training and distribute standardized lesson plans and assessment tools |
| • “Teachers lack both expertise and sufficient time for education.” | |||
| Expansion of community linkages | (No quantitative items; emphasized in qualitative data) | • “Visits to centers are limited to 1–2 times a year.” | • Increase participation in community center programs; establish and institutionalize regular connections with local resources such as farms and local food suppliers |
| • “After visiting markets or farms, children showed improved eating behavior.” |
n (%).
Mean ± SD. 5-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. An independent sample t-test was performed after verifying the homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. Statistical significance was set at
Mean ± SD. 5-point Likert scale: 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = very frequently. Responses of “Do not know (6)” were excluded. An independent sample t-test was performed after verifying the homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. Statistical significance was set at
n (%) or Mean ± SD. For continuous variables, an independent sample t-test was conducted after verifying the homogeneity of variance using Levene’s test. For categorical variables, a chi-square ( 5-point Likert scale: 1 = very insufficient, 2 = insufficient, 3 = neutral, 4 = sufficient, 5 = very sufficient. 5-point Likert scale: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = moderate, 4 = high, 5 = very high. 5-point Likert scale: 1 = not necessary at all, 2 = slightly necessary, 3 = moderately necessary, 4 = necessary, 5 = very necessary. 5-point Likert scale: 1 = never received, 2 = rarely received, 3 = occasionally received, 4 = frequently received, 5 = very frequently received. 5-point Likert scale: 1 = never utilized, 2 = rarely utilized, 3 = occasionally utilized, 4 = frequently utilized, 5 = very frequently utilized.
n (%) or Mean ± SD. AR, augmented reality; VR, virtual reality. AR, augmented reality; VR, virtual reality. For continuous variables, an independent sample t-test was conducted after verifying the homogeneity of variance using Levene’s test. A chi-square ( Each item was measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “Not necessary at all (1)” to “Very necessary (5).” Each item was measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “Not helpful at all (1)” to “Very helpful (5).”
