, 김형숙2),†
, Hyung-Sook Kim2),†
1)화성시 어린이·사회복지급식관리지원센터 팀장
2)수원대학교 식품영양학과 조교수
1)Team Leader, Center for Children’s and Social Welfare Foodservice Management, Hwaseong, Korea
2)Assistant Professor, Department of Food & Nutrition, The University of Suwon, Hwaseong, Korea
© 2026 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
None.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Research data is available upon request to the corresponding author.
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level1) | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Child gender | 0.0302) | ||||
| Boys | 2,502 (48.3) | 714 (50.9) | 516 (49.2) | 1,272 (46.7) | |
| Girls | 2,673 (51.7) | 688 (49.1) | 533 (50.8) | 1,452 (53.3) | |
| Child age (mo) | 40.23 ± 14.76 | 42.27 ± 14.49a | 39.98 ± 14.44b | 39.27 ± 14.88b | < 0.0013) |
| 1–2 yr | 2,264 (43.7) | 522 (37.2) | 449 (42.8) | 1,293 (47.5) | < 0.0012) |
| 3–5 yr | 2,911 (56.3) | 880 (62.8) | 600 (57.2) | 1,431 (52.5) | |
| Parent age (yr) | |||||
| 20s | 293 (5.7) | 65 (4.6) | 62 (5.9) | 166 (6.1) | 0.0212) |
| 30s | 3,930 (76.0) | 1,093 (78.1) | 765 (72.9) | 2,072 (76.1) | |
| ≥ 40s | 949 (18.3) | 242 (17.3) | 222 (21.2) | 485 (17.8) | |
| Education level of parent4) | 0.1502) | ||||
| ≤ High school | 591 (11.5) | 158 (11.4) | 129 (12.3) | 304 (11.3) | |
| College | 3,947 (76.9) | 1,082 (78.1) | 813 (77.5) | 2,052 (76.1) | |
| ≥ Graduate school | 593 (11.6) | 146 (10.5) | 107 (10.2) | 340 (12.6) | |
| Childminder | 0.3792) | ||||
| Parents | 1,531 (29.6) | 392 (28.0) | 325 (31.0) | 814 (29.9) | |
| Daycare teachers | 3,442 (66.5) | 961 (68.5) | 6,811 (64.9) | 1,800 (66.1) | |
| Grandparents/others | 202 (3.9) | 49 (3.5) | 43 (4.1) | 110 (4.0) | |
n (%) or Mean ± SD.
1)Parental growth concern level was categorized as low (1–2), moderate (3), or high (4–5) based on a 5-point Likert scale.
2)Chi-square test.
3)One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
4)Education level of parent was available for 5,131 participants (high = 1,386, moderate = 1,049, low = 2,696), excluding missing data.
abDifferent superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at P < 0.05.
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Dietary supplements intake | < 0.0011) | ||||
| No | 1,469 (28.4) | 324 (23.1) | 309 (29.5) | 836 (30.7) | |
| Yes | 3,706 (71.6) | 1,078 (76.9) | 740 (70.5) | 1,888 (69.3) | |
| Types of dietary supplements2) | |||||
| Nutritional supplements | 3,313 (78.4) | 967 (77.8) | 672 (86.6) | 1,674 (78.2) | < 0.0011) |
| Lactobacillus | 433 (10.2) | 104 (8.4) | 31 (4.0) | 249 (11.6) | 0.1041) |
| Red ginseng | 377 (8.9) | 120 (9.6) | 21 (2.7) | 188 (8.8) | 0.0931) |
| Oriental medicine | 104 (2.5) | 52 (4.2) | 52 (6.7) | 31 (1.4) | < 0.0011) |
| Chronic disease | < 0.0011) | ||||
| No | 4,524 (87.4) | 1,173 (83.7) | 899 (85.7) | 2,452 (90.0) | |
| Yes | 651 (12.6) | 229 (16.3) | 150 (14.3) | 272 (10.0) | |
| Types of chronic disease3) | |||||
| Allergic rhinitis | 455 (69.9) | 160 (69.9) | 105 (70.0) | 190 (69.9) | < 0.0011) |
| Atopic dermatitis | 145 (22.3) | 54 (23.6) | 34 (22.7) | 57 (21.0) | 0.0031) |
| Pollen allergy | 28 (4.3) | 8 (3.5) | 10 (6.7) | 10 (3.7) | 0.0881) |
| Others4) | 102 (15.6) | 38 (16.6) | 23 (15.3) | 41 (15.0) | 0.0431) |
| Food allergy | 0.1231) | ||||
| No | 4,840 (93.5) | 1,309 (93.4) | 968 (92.3) | 2,563 (94.1) | |
| Yes | 335 (6.5) | 93 (6.6) | 81 (7.7) | 161 (5.9) | |
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Birth weight (kg) | 3.88 ± 5.34 | 3.44 ± 2.91a | 4.09 ± 7.34b | 4.02 ± 5.38b | 0.0011) |
| Height (cm) | 96.40 ± 10.23 | 94.71 ± 9.62a | 95.44 ± 9.84a | 97.64 ± 10.51b | < 0.0011) |
| Weight (kg) | 14.93 ± 3.28 | 13.94 ± 2.67a | 14.51 ± 2.85b | 15.60 ± 3.56c | < 0.0011) |
| BMI (kg/m2)2) | 16.03 ± 9.39 | 15.90 ± 17.48 | 15.84 ± 2.15 | 16.15 ± 1.66 | 0.6061) |
| Weight status2), 3) | < 0.0014) | ||||
| Underweight | 312 (6.9) | 134 (10.5) | 71 (7.8) | 107 (4.6) | |
| Normal weight | 3,427 (76.0) | 1,013 (80.0) | 704 (77.4) | 1,710 (73.4) | |
| Overweight | 390 (8.7) | 67 (5.3) | 74 (8.1) | 249 (10.7) | |
| Obesity | 378 (8.4) | 53 (4.2) | 61 (6.7) | 264 (11.3) | |
Mean ± SD or n (%).
1)One-way ANOVA.
2)Since body mass index (BMI) is assessed only for children aged ≥ 2 years, the total sample size for BMI-related variables was n = 4,507 (high = 1,267, moderate = 910, low = 2,330).
3)Underweight: BMI percentile < 5, normal weight: 5 ≤ BMI percentile < 85, overweight: 85 ≤ BMI percentile < 95, obesity: BMI percentile ≥ 95.
4)Chi-square test.
abcDifferent superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at P < 0.05.
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Bedtime | |||||
| Before 10 pm | 4,386 (84.8) | 1,172 (83.6) | 873 (83.2) | 2,341 (85.9) | 0.0421) |
| After 10 pm | 789 (15.2) | 230 (16.4) | 176 (16.8) | 383 (14.1) | |
| Average sleep duration (hr) | 10.02 ± 1.22 | 9.94 ± 1.16 a | 9.93 ± 1.22a | 10.10 ± 1.24b | < 0.0012) |
| Within the range of recommended sleep hours3) | 2,562 (49.5) | 694 (49.5) | 495 (47.2) | 1,373 (50.4) | 0.2411) |
| Out of the range of recommended sleep hours | 2,613 (50.5) | 708 (50.5) | 554 (52.8) | 1,351 (49.6) | |
| Worrying about meal | < 0.0012) | ||||
| High | 1,980 (38.3) | 933 (66.5) | 450 (42.9) | 597 (21.8) | |
| Moderate | 1,417 (27.4) | 316 (22.5) | 371 (35.4) | 730 (26.8) | |
| Low | 1,778 (34.4) | 153 (10.9) | 228 (21.7) | 1,397 (51.3) | |
| Average meal duration (min) | 33.10 ± 13.56 | 37.46 ± 15.66a | 33.30 ± 12.98b | 30.77 ± 12..04c | < 0.0012) |
| 10 to < 60 | 4,528 (87.5) | 1,130 (80.6) | 933 (88.9) | 2,465 (90.5) | < 0.0011) |
| ≥ 60 | 506 (9.8) | 243 (17.3) | 95 (9.1) | 168 (6.2) | |
| < 10 | 141 (2.7) | 29 (2.1) | 21 (2.0) | 91 (3.3) | |
| Frequency of exercise | < 0.0011) | ||||
| ≥ 5 times a week | 2,871 (55.5) | 710 (50.6) | 568 (54.1) | 1,593 (58.5) | |
| ≤ 4 times a week | 2,304 (44.5) | 692 (49.4) | 481 (45.9) | 1,131 (41.5) | |
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Dietary factors | |||||
| Grains | 0.003 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/day | 3,764 (72.7) | 1,025 (73.1) | 720 (68.6) | 2,019 (74.1) | |
| ≤ 2 times/day | 1,411 (27.3) | 377 (26.9) | 329 (31.4) | 705 (25.9) | |
| Meat, fish, eggs, and beans | < 0.001 | ||||
| ≥ 2 times/day | 4,363 (84.3) | 1,146 (81.7) | 867 (82.7) | 2,350 (86.3) | |
| ≤ 1 times/day | 812 (15.7) | 256 (18.3) | 182 (17.3) | 374 (13.7) | |
| Vegetables (except kimchi) | < 0.001 | ||||
| ≥ 2 times/day | 2,951 (57.0) | 751 (53.6) | 566 (54.0) | 1,634 (60.0) | |
| ≤ 1 times/day | 2,224 (43.0) | 651 (46.4) | 483 (46.0) | 1,090 (40.0) | |
| Kimchi | 0.037 | ||||
| ≥ 2 times/day | 1,347 (26.0) | 338 (24.1) | 260 (24.8) | 746 (27.5) | |
| ≤ 1 times/day | 3,828 (74.0) | 1,064 (75.9) | 789 (75.2) | 1,975 (72.5) | |
| Fruits | 0.119 | ||||
| ≥ 5 times/week | 2,426 (46.9) | 631 (45.0) | 482 (45.9) | 1,313 (48.2) | |
| ≤ 4 times/week | 2,749 (53.1) | 771 (55.0) | 567 (54.1) | 1,411 (51.8) | |
| Dairy products | 0.073 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 4,543 (87.8) | 1,213 (86.5) | 912 (86.9) | 2,418 (88.8) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 632 (12.2) | 189 (13.5) | 137 (13.1) | 306 (11.2) | |
| Snacking | |||||
| Processed food2) | 0.010 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 3,639 (70.3) | 1,019 (72.7) | 754 (71.9) | 1,866 (68.5) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 1,536 (29.7) | 383 (27.3) | 295 (28.1) | 858 (31.5) | |
| Fast food | 0.835 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 184 (3.6) | 53 (3.8) | 35 (3.3) | 96 (3.5) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 4,991 (96.4) | 1,349 (96.2) | 1,014 (96.7) | 2,628 (96.5) | |
| Meal regularity | |||||
| Meal frequency | < 0.001 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/day | 4,417 (85.4) | 1,177 (84.0) | 864 (82.4) | 2,376 (87.2) | |
| ≤ 2 times/day | 758 (14.6) | 225 (16.0) | 185 (17.6) | 348 (12.8) | |
| Breakfast eating | 0.008 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 4,313 (83.3) | 1,150 (82.0) | 852 (81.2) | 2,311 (84.8) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 862 (16.7) | 252 (18.0) | 197 (18.8) | 413 (15.2) | |
| Variables1) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Parental growth concern | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| 2. Swallowing problems | 0.27*** | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 3. Retching while swallowing food | 0.20*** | 0.39*** | 1.00 | |||||||||
| 4. Difficultly chewing hard foods | 0.22*** | 0.43*** | 0.36*** | 1.00 | ||||||||
| 5. Difficultly chewing tough foods | 0.23*** | 0.48*** | 0.36*** | 0.62*** | 1.00 | |||||||
| 6. Picky eating behavior | 0.31*** | 0.37*** | 0.26*** | 0.29*** | 0.32*** | 1.00 | ||||||
| 7. Irregular eating behavior | 0.26*** | 0.32*** | 0.18*** | 0.19*** | 0.21*** | 0.38*** | 1.00 | |||||
| 8. Focusing on the meal or attention | 0.19*** | 0.29*** | 0.14*** | 0.13*** | 0.17*** | 0.29*** | 0.36*** | 1.00 | ||||
| 9. Refusal to eat | 0.26*** | 0.46*** | 0.40*** | 0.31*** | 0.30*** | 0.50*** | 0.39*** | 0.27*** | 1.00 | |||
| 10. Low eating autonomy | 0.07*** | 0.13*** | 0.06*** | 0.08*** | 0.08*** | 0.23*** | 0.25*** | 0.15*** | 0.18*** | 1.00 | ||
| 11. Watching smart phone while eating | 0.08*** | 0.14*** | 0.04*** | 0.07*** | 0.06*** | 0.22*** | 0.28*** | 0.25*** | 0.17*** | 0.66*** | 1.00 | |
| 12. Watching TV while eating | 0.24*** | 0.34*** | 0.24*** | 0.23*** | 0.24*** | 0.35*** | 0.29*** | 0.45*** | 0.35*** | 0.23*** | 0.23*** | 1.00 |
| Variables1) | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value2) | Partial η2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | ||||
| Swallowing problems | 2.43 ± 1.53 | 2.83 ± 1.21a | 2.53 ± 1.14b | 2.19 ± 1.07c | < 0.001 | 0.056 |
| Retching while swallowing food | 1.85 ± 0.94 | 2.09 ± 1.04a | 1.91 ± 0.95b | 1.71 ± 0.84c | < 0.001 | 0.030 |
| Difficultly chewing hard foods | 2.17 ± 1.09 | 2.44 ± 1.16a | 2.30 ± 1.08b | 1.98 ± 1.01c | < 0.001 | 0.035 |
| Difficultly chewing tough foods | 2.65 ± 1.22 | 3.03 ± 1.22a | 2.73 ± 1.21b | 2.43 ± 1.17c | < 0.001 | 0.044 |
| Picky eating behavior | 2.88 ± 1.20 | 3.37 ± 1.17a | 2.99 ± 1.12b | 2.58 ± 1.15c | < 0.001 | 0.080 |
| Irregular eating behavior | 2.20 ± 0.94 | 2.48 ± 1.02a | 2.33 ± 0.90b | 2.00 ± 0.86c | < 0.001 | 0.052 |
| Distractibility during mealtime | 2.67 ± 1.18 | 2.94 ± 1.23a | 2.80 ± 1.14b | 2.48 ± 1.14c | < 0.001 | 0.030 |
| Refusal to eat | 1.82 ± 0.94 | 2.14 ± 1.07a | 1.91 ± 0.96b | 1.63 ± 0.80c | < 0.001 | 0.056 |
| Low eating autonomy | 2.58 ± 1.12 | 2.91 ± 1.16a | 2.70 ± 1.07b | 2.36 ± 1.08c | < 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Watching smart phone while eating | 1.98 ± 1.17 | 2.06 ± 1.21a | 2.06 ± 1.17a | 1.91 ± 1.14b | < 0.001 | 0.005 |
| Watching TV while eating | 2.28 ± 1.25 | 2.37 ± 1.30a | 2.38 ± 1.22a | 2.20 ± 1.22b | < 0.001 | 0.044 |
Mean ± SD.
1)The 5-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.
2)Multivariate test (MANOVA): Pillai’s trace = 0.131 (P < 0.001), Wilks’ lambda = 0.870 (P < 0.001), Hotelling’s trace = 0.149 (P < 0.001), Roy’s largest root = 0.145 (P < 0.001).
abcDifferent superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at P < 0.05.
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level |
P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Child gender | 0.030 |
||||
| Boys | 2,502 (48.3) | 714 (50.9) | 516 (49.2) | 1,272 (46.7) | |
| Girls | 2,673 (51.7) | 688 (49.1) | 533 (50.8) | 1,452 (53.3) | |
| Child age (mo) | 40.23 ± 14.76 | 42.27 ± 14.49 |
39.98 ± 14.44 |
39.27 ± 14.88 |
< 0.001 |
| 1–2 yr | 2,264 (43.7) | 522 (37.2) | 449 (42.8) | 1,293 (47.5) | < 0.001 |
| 3–5 yr | 2,911 (56.3) | 880 (62.8) | 600 (57.2) | 1,431 (52.5) | |
| Parent age (yr) | |||||
| 20s | 293 (5.7) | 65 (4.6) | 62 (5.9) | 166 (6.1) | 0.021 |
| 30s | 3,930 (76.0) | 1,093 (78.1) | 765 (72.9) | 2,072 (76.1) | |
| ≥ 40s | 949 (18.3) | 242 (17.3) | 222 (21.2) | 485 (17.8) | |
| Education level of parent |
0.150 |
||||
| ≤ High school | 591 (11.5) | 158 (11.4) | 129 (12.3) | 304 (11.3) | |
| College | 3,947 (76.9) | 1,082 (78.1) | 813 (77.5) | 2,052 (76.1) | |
| ≥ Graduate school | 593 (11.6) | 146 (10.5) | 107 (10.2) | 340 (12.6) | |
| Childminder | 0.379 |
||||
| Parents | 1,531 (29.6) | 392 (28.0) | 325 (31.0) | 814 (29.9) | |
| Daycare teachers | 3,442 (66.5) | 961 (68.5) | 6,811 (64.9) | 1,800 (66.1) | |
| Grandparents/others | 202 (3.9) | 49 (3.5) | 43 (4.1) | 110 (4.0) | |
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Dietary supplements intake | < 0.001 |
||||
| No | 1,469 (28.4) | 324 (23.1) | 309 (29.5) | 836 (30.7) | |
| Yes | 3,706 (71.6) | 1,078 (76.9) | 740 (70.5) | 1,888 (69.3) | |
| Types of dietary supplements |
|||||
| Nutritional supplements | 3,313 (78.4) | 967 (77.8) | 672 (86.6) | 1,674 (78.2) | < 0.001 |
| Lactobacillus | 433 (10.2) | 104 (8.4) | 31 (4.0) | 249 (11.6) | 0.104 |
| Red ginseng | 377 (8.9) | 120 (9.6) | 21 (2.7) | 188 (8.8) | 0.093 |
| Oriental medicine | 104 (2.5) | 52 (4.2) | 52 (6.7) | 31 (1.4) | < 0.001 |
| Chronic disease | < 0.001 |
||||
| No | 4,524 (87.4) | 1,173 (83.7) | 899 (85.7) | 2,452 (90.0) | |
| Yes | 651 (12.6) | 229 (16.3) | 150 (14.3) | 272 (10.0) | |
| Types of chronic disease |
|||||
| Allergic rhinitis | 455 (69.9) | 160 (69.9) | 105 (70.0) | 190 (69.9) | < 0.001 |
| Atopic dermatitis | 145 (22.3) | 54 (23.6) | 34 (22.7) | 57 (21.0) | 0.003 |
| Pollen allergy | 28 (4.3) | 8 (3.5) | 10 (6.7) | 10 (3.7) | 0.088 |
| Others |
102 (15.6) | 38 (16.6) | 23 (15.3) | 41 (15.0) | 0.043 |
| Food allergy | 0.123 |
||||
| No | 4,840 (93.5) | 1,309 (93.4) | 968 (92.3) | 2,563 (94.1) | |
| Yes | 335 (6.5) | 93 (6.6) | 81 (7.7) | 161 (5.9) | |
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Birth weight (kg) | 3.88 ± 5.34 | 3.44 ± 2.91 |
4.09 ± 7.34 |
4.02 ± 5.38 |
0.001 |
| Height (cm) | 96.40 ± 10.23 | 94.71 ± 9.62 |
95.44 ± 9.84 |
97.64 ± 10.51 |
< 0.001 |
| Weight (kg) | 14.93 ± 3.28 | 13.94 ± 2.67 |
14.51 ± 2.85 |
15.60 ± 3.56 |
< 0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) |
16.03 ± 9.39 | 15.90 ± 17.48 | 15.84 ± 2.15 | 16.15 ± 1.66 | 0.606 |
| Weight status |
< 0.001 |
||||
| Underweight | 312 (6.9) | 134 (10.5) | 71 (7.8) | 107 (4.6) | |
| Normal weight | 3,427 (76.0) | 1,013 (80.0) | 704 (77.4) | 1,710 (73.4) | |
| Overweight | 390 (8.7) | 67 (5.3) | 74 (8.1) | 249 (10.7) | |
| Obesity | 378 (8.4) | 53 (4.2) | 61 (6.7) | 264 (11.3) | |
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Bedtime | |||||
| Before 10 pm | 4,386 (84.8) | 1,172 (83.6) | 873 (83.2) | 2,341 (85.9) | 0.042 |
| After 10 pm | 789 (15.2) | 230 (16.4) | 176 (16.8) | 383 (14.1) | |
| Average sleep duration (hr) | 10.02 ± 1.22 | 9.94 ± 1.16 |
9.93 ± 1.22 |
10.10 ± 1.24 |
< 0.001 |
| Within the range of recommended sleep hours |
2,562 (49.5) | 694 (49.5) | 495 (47.2) | 1,373 (50.4) | 0.241 |
| Out of the range of recommended sleep hours | 2,613 (50.5) | 708 (50.5) | 554 (52.8) | 1,351 (49.6) | |
| Worrying about meal | < 0.001 |
||||
| High | 1,980 (38.3) | 933 (66.5) | 450 (42.9) | 597 (21.8) | |
| Moderate | 1,417 (27.4) | 316 (22.5) | 371 (35.4) | 730 (26.8) | |
| Low | 1,778 (34.4) | 153 (10.9) | 228 (21.7) | 1,397 (51.3) | |
| Average meal duration (min) | 33.10 ± 13.56 | 37.46 ± 15.66 |
33.30 ± 12.98 |
30.77 ± 12..04 |
< 0.001 |
| 10 to < 60 | 4,528 (87.5) | 1,130 (80.6) | 933 (88.9) | 2,465 (90.5) | < 0.001 |
| ≥ 60 | 506 (9.8) | 243 (17.3) | 95 (9.1) | 168 (6.2) | |
| < 10 | 141 (2.7) | 29 (2.1) | 21 (2.0) | 91 (3.3) | |
| Frequency of exercise | < 0.001 |
||||
| ≥ 5 times a week | 2,871 (55.5) | 710 (50.6) | 568 (54.1) | 1,593 (58.5) | |
| ≤ 4 times a week | 2,304 (44.5) | 692 (49.4) | 481 (45.9) | 1,131 (41.5) | |
| Variables | Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | |||
| Dietary factors | |||||
| Grains | 0.003 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/day | 3,764 (72.7) | 1,025 (73.1) | 720 (68.6) | 2,019 (74.1) | |
| ≤ 2 times/day | 1,411 (27.3) | 377 (26.9) | 329 (31.4) | 705 (25.9) | |
| Meat, fish, eggs, and beans | < 0.001 | ||||
| ≥ 2 times/day | 4,363 (84.3) | 1,146 (81.7) | 867 (82.7) | 2,350 (86.3) | |
| ≤ 1 times/day | 812 (15.7) | 256 (18.3) | 182 (17.3) | 374 (13.7) | |
| Vegetables (except kimchi) | < 0.001 | ||||
| ≥ 2 times/day | 2,951 (57.0) | 751 (53.6) | 566 (54.0) | 1,634 (60.0) | |
| ≤ 1 times/day | 2,224 (43.0) | 651 (46.4) | 483 (46.0) | 1,090 (40.0) | |
| Kimchi | 0.037 | ||||
| ≥ 2 times/day | 1,347 (26.0) | 338 (24.1) | 260 (24.8) | 746 (27.5) | |
| ≤ 1 times/day | 3,828 (74.0) | 1,064 (75.9) | 789 (75.2) | 1,975 (72.5) | |
| Fruits | 0.119 | ||||
| ≥ 5 times/week | 2,426 (46.9) | 631 (45.0) | 482 (45.9) | 1,313 (48.2) | |
| ≤ 4 times/week | 2,749 (53.1) | 771 (55.0) | 567 (54.1) | 1,411 (51.8) | |
| Dairy products | 0.073 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 4,543 (87.8) | 1,213 (86.5) | 912 (86.9) | 2,418 (88.8) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 632 (12.2) | 189 (13.5) | 137 (13.1) | 306 (11.2) | |
| Snacking | |||||
| Processed food |
0.010 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 3,639 (70.3) | 1,019 (72.7) | 754 (71.9) | 1,866 (68.5) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 1,536 (29.7) | 383 (27.3) | 295 (28.1) | 858 (31.5) | |
| Fast food | 0.835 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 184 (3.6) | 53 (3.8) | 35 (3.3) | 96 (3.5) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 4,991 (96.4) | 1,349 (96.2) | 1,014 (96.7) | 2,628 (96.5) | |
| Meal regularity | |||||
| Meal frequency | < 0.001 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/day | 4,417 (85.4) | 1,177 (84.0) | 864 (82.4) | 2,376 (87.2) | |
| ≤ 2 times/day | 758 (14.6) | 225 (16.0) | 185 (17.6) | 348 (12.8) | |
| Breakfast eating | 0.008 | ||||
| ≥ 3 times/week | 4,313 (83.3) | 1,150 (82.0) | 852 (81.2) | 2,311 (84.8) | |
| ≤ 2 times/week | 862 (16.7) | 252 (18.0) | 197 (18.8) | 413 (15.2) | |
| Variables |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Parental growth concern | 1.00 | |||||||||||
| 2. Swallowing problems | 0.27 |
1.00 | ||||||||||
| 3. Retching while swallowing food | 0.20 |
0.39 |
1.00 | |||||||||
| 4. Difficultly chewing hard foods | 0.22 |
0.43 |
0.36 |
1.00 | ||||||||
| 5. Difficultly chewing tough foods | 0.23 |
0.48 |
0.36 |
0.62 |
1.00 | |||||||
| 6. Picky eating behavior | 0.31 |
0.37 |
0.26 |
0.29 |
0.32 |
1.00 | ||||||
| 7. Irregular eating behavior | 0.26 |
0.32 |
0.18 |
0.19 |
0.21 |
0.38 |
1.00 | |||||
| 8. Focusing on the meal or attention | 0.19 |
0.29 |
0.14 |
0.13 |
0.17 |
0.29 |
0.36 |
1.00 | ||||
| 9. Refusal to eat | 0.26 |
0.46 |
0.40 |
0.31 |
0.30 |
0.50 |
0.39 |
0.27 |
1.00 | |||
| 10. Low eating autonomy | 0.07 |
0.13 |
0.06 |
0.08 |
0.08 |
0.23 |
0.25 |
0.15 |
0.18 |
1.00 | ||
| 11. Watching smart phone while eating | 0.08 |
0.14 |
0.04 |
0.07 |
0.06 |
0.22 |
0.28 |
0.25 |
0.17 |
0.66 |
1.00 | |
| 12. Watching TV while eating | 0.24 |
0.34 |
0.24 |
0.23 |
0.24 |
0.35 |
0.29 |
0.45 |
0.35 |
0.23 |
0.23 |
1.00 |
| Variables |
Total (n = 5,175) | Parental growth concern level | P-value |
Partial η2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High (n = 1,402) | Moderate (n = 1,049) | Low (n = 2,724) | ||||
| Swallowing problems | 2.43 ± 1.53 | 2.83 ± 1.21 |
2.53 ± 1.14 |
2.19 ± 1.07 |
< 0.001 | 0.056 |
| Retching while swallowing food | 1.85 ± 0.94 | 2.09 ± 1.04 |
1.91 ± 0.95 |
1.71 ± 0.84 |
< 0.001 | 0.030 |
| Difficultly chewing hard foods | 2.17 ± 1.09 | 2.44 ± 1.16 |
2.30 ± 1.08 |
1.98 ± 1.01 |
< 0.001 | 0.035 |
| Difficultly chewing tough foods | 2.65 ± 1.22 | 3.03 ± 1.22 |
2.73 ± 1.21 |
2.43 ± 1.17 |
< 0.001 | 0.044 |
| Picky eating behavior | 2.88 ± 1.20 | 3.37 ± 1.17 |
2.99 ± 1.12 |
2.58 ± 1.15 |
< 0.001 | 0.080 |
| Irregular eating behavior | 2.20 ± 0.94 | 2.48 ± 1.02 |
2.33 ± 0.90 |
2.00 ± 0.86 |
< 0.001 | 0.052 |
| Distractibility during mealtime | 2.67 ± 1.18 | 2.94 ± 1.23 |
2.80 ± 1.14 |
2.48 ± 1.14 |
< 0.001 | 0.030 |
| Refusal to eat | 1.82 ± 0.94 | 2.14 ± 1.07 |
1.91 ± 0.96 |
1.63 ± 0.80 |
< 0.001 | 0.056 |
| Low eating autonomy | 2.58 ± 1.12 | 2.91 ± 1.16 |
2.70 ± 1.07 |
2.36 ± 1.08 |
< 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Watching smart phone while eating | 1.98 ± 1.17 | 2.06 ± 1.21 |
2.06 ± 1.17 |
1.91 ± 1.14 |
< 0.001 | 0.005 |
| Watching TV while eating | 2.28 ± 1.25 | 2.37 ± 1.30 |
2.38 ± 1.22 |
2.20 ± 1.22 |
< 0.001 | 0.044 |
n (%) or Mean ± SD. Parental growth concern level was categorized as low (1–2), moderate (3), or high (4–5) based on a 5-point Likert scale. Chi-square test. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Education level of parent was available for 5,131 participants (high = 1,386, moderate = 1,049, low = 2,696), excluding missing data. Different superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at
n (%). Chi-square test. Multiple responses (n = 4,227). Multiple responses (n = 730). Asthma, precocious puberty, etc.
Mean ± SD or n (%). One-way ANOVA. Since body mass index (BMI) is assessed only for children aged ≥ 2 years, the total sample size for BMI-related variables was n = 4,507 (high = 1,267, moderate = 910, low = 2,330). Underweight: BMI percentile < 5, normal weight: 5 ≤ BMI percentile < 85, overweight: 85 ≤ BMI percentile < 95, obesity: BMI percentile ≥ 95. Chi-square test. Different superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at
n (%) or Mean ± SD. Chi-square test. One-way ANOVA. Recommended sleep duration: 11–14 h (ages 1–2 years), 10–13 h (ages 3–5 years). Different superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at
n (%). Chi-square test. Processed food: chocolate, cola, cider, ice cream, etc.
The 5-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. Pearson’s correlation.
Mean ± SD. The 5-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. Multivariate test (MANOVA): Pillai’s trace = 0.131 ( Different superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences among groups, assessed using Duncan’s multiple range test at
