Study of the Coverage of Nutrition Labeling System on the Nutrient Intake of Koreans – using the 2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) Data

Ji Eun Park; Haeng-Shin Lee; Yoonna Lee

doi:10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.2.116

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Research Article: Korean Journal of Community Nutrition 2018;23(2):116-127.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.2.116
Published online: January 20, 2018

¹⁾Department of Nutrition Research Team, R&D Center, Nongshim, Seoul 07057, Korea

²⁾Department of Lifecare Industry, Korea Health Industry Development Institute, Chungbuk 28159, Korea

³⁾Department of Food and nutrition, Shingu College, Seongnam 13174, Korea

†Corresponding author Yoonna Lee Department of Food & Nutrition, Shingu College, 377 Gwangmyeong-ro, Seongnam, Gyeonggi-do 462-743, Korea Tel: (031) 740-1528 Fax: (031) 740-1590 E-mail: ynlee@shingu.ac.kr ORCID: 0000-0003-2302-3646

• Received: February 12, 2018 • Revised: April 10, 2018 • Accepted: April 20, 2018

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Abstract
REFERENCES

Abstract

Objectives
The purpose of this study was to examine the coverage of the current mandatory nutrition labeling system on the nutrient intake of Koreans.
Methods
KNHANES dietary intake data (2013) of 7,242 subjects were used in the analysis. KNHANES dietary intake data were collected by a 24-hour recall method by trained dietitians. For analysis, all food items consumed by the subjects were classified into two groups (foods with mandatory labeling and other foods). In the next step, all food items were reclassified into four groups according to the food type and nutrition labeling regulations: raw material food, processed food of raw material characteristics, processed foods without mandatory labeling, and processed foods with mandatory labeling. The intake of energy and five nutrients (carbohydrate, protein, fat, saturated fat, and sodium) of subjects from each food group were analyzed to determine the coverage of the mandatory nutrition labeling system among the total nutrient intake of Koreans.
Results
The average intake of foods with mandatory labeling were 384g/day, which was approximately one quarter of the total daily food intake (1,544 g/day). The proportion of energy and five nutrients intake from foods with mandatory labeling was 18.1%∼47.4%. The average food intake from the 4 food groups were 745 g/day (48.3%) for the raw food materials, 54 g/day (3.5%) for the processed food of raw material characteristics, 391 g/day (25.3%) for the processed foods without mandatory labeling, and 354 g/day (22.9%) for the processed foods with mandatory labeling.
Conclusions
Although nutrition labeling is a useful tool for providing nutritional information to consumers, the coverage of current mandatory nutrition labeling system on daily nutrient intake of the Korean population is not high. To encourage informed choices and improve healthy eating habits of the Korean population, the nutrition labeling system should be expanded to include more food items and foodservice menus.
Keywords: nutrition labeling; processed food; dietary intake; Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES)

Fig. 1.

Proportion of food and nutrient intake from 4 food groups according to the food type and nutrition labeling regulation

Table 1.

Food group classification according to food type and nutrition labeling regulation

Group	Classification		Mandatory labeling	The number of food item (Total=5,120)
Group	Food class (Large classification)	Food type (Small classification)	Mandatory labeling	The number of food item (Total=5,120)
Raw food materials	Raw food materials	Agricultural/Fishery/Livestock and egg Products	X	1,588
Processed foods of raw material characteristics	Sugars	White sugar, Brown sugar, Other Sugars	X	20
	Glucose	Liquid glucose, Powder or crystalline glucose	X	1
	Fructose	Liquid fructose, Crystalline fructose, Other fructoses	X	1
	Glutinous Rice Jellies (Yeat)	Molasses, Other yeats, Dextrin	X	25
	Sugar Syrups		X	4
	Oligosaccharides	Fructo-oligosaccharides, Isomalto-oligosaccharide,
		Galacto-oligosaccharide, Malto-oligosaccharide, Xylo-oligosaccharide, Gentio-oligosaccharide, Other oligosaccharides	X	2
	Edible Oils and Fats	Soybean oil, Corn oil, Canola oil, Rice bran oil, Sesame
		oil, Perilla seed oil, Safflower oil, Sunflower oil,
		Cottonseed oil, Peanut oil, Olive oil, Palm oil, Coconut	O	80
		oil, Mixed oil, Processed fat, Shortening, Margarine,
		Hot pepper seed oil, Flavored oil, Other edible oils
	Soy Sauces or Pastes	Meju(Fermented soybeans), Korean style soy sauce,
		Brewed soy sauce, Acid-hydrolyzed soy sauce,
		Enzyme-hydrolyzed soy sauce, Mixed soy sauce,
		Korean soybean paste, Soybean paste, Seasoned soybean paste, Gochujang (soy paste with red peppers), Seasoned gochujang(Seasoned soy paste with red peppers), Chunjang (Black-colored soy paste), Mixed paste, Others	O	126
		Korean style Meju (Fermented soybeans), Korean
		traditional soy sauce, Korean style soybean paste,	X	5
		Cheonggukjang (Ground fermented soybean)
	Seasonings	Vinegars, Sauces, Tomato ketchup, Curry, Powdered
		red pepper or shredded red pepper, Spice products,	X	148
		Composite seasonings
	Dressings	Dressing, Mayonnaise	X	19
	Other Foods	Edible salts	X	47
Processed foods, mandatory labeling	Confectioneries	Confectioneries, Candies, Ice candies	O	319
	Breads or rice cakes	Breads, Dumplings	O	170
	Cocoa products or chocolates	Chocolates	O	32
	Jams	Jam, Marmalade, Other Jams	O	16
	Processed meat and egg products	Processed meat product (Sausages, Hams)	O	117
	Fish meat products	Fish sausage	O	6
	Noodles	Noodles, Naengmyeon (Cold noodle), Dangmyeon (Chinese noodle), Oil-fried noodles, Pastas, Other noodles	O	143
	Coffees	Formulated coffee, Liquid coffee	O	19
	Beverages	Fruit/vegetable beverages, Carbonated beverages, Soymilks, Fermented beverages, Ginseng/ red ginseng beverages, Other beverages	O	269
	Foods for special dietary uses	Infant formula, Follow-up formula, Cereal based foods for infants and young children, Other foods for infants and young children, Foods for special medical purpose, Foods for weight control, Foods for pregnant or lactating women	O	26
	Other foods	Ready-to-eat foods (Gimbap (rice rolled in dried laver), Hamburger, Sandwich)	O	61
	Processing standards and	Milks, Fermented milks, Processed milks, Ice creams,
	ingredient specifications for livestock products	Milk powders, Cheese, Butters	O	519
	Long shelf-life foods (Retort foods)		O	35
Processed foods, No mandatory labeling (Voluntary labeling)	Confectioneries	Chewing gum	X	12
	Breads or rice cakes	Rice cakes	X	23
	Cocoa products or chocolates	Processed cocoa products	X	10
	Processed meat and egg products	Processed meat product (Except sausages and hams), processed egg product	X	93
	Fish meat products	Fish cake, Half-finished fish meat product, Fish flesh, Fish meat paste, Other processed fish meat products	X	135
	Bean-curds or Starch Jellies (Mook)	Bean curd, Ground processed bean curd, Yuba, Processed bean curd, Starch jelly(Mook)	X	37
	Teas	Leached tea (Infused tea), Liquid tea, Solid tea	X	87
	Coffees	Roasted coffee (Roasted coffee bean or that is grinded), Instant coffee(Dried form of soluble extract of coffee)	X	35
	Kimchies	Kimchisok (Seasoned materials for kimchi), Chinese cabbage kimchi, Other kimchi	X	21
	Salted and fermented seafoods (Jeotkal)	Salted and fermented seafoods, Spiced salted and fermented seafoods, Joet, Spiced/seasoned Jeot, Sikhae	X	77
	Pickles	Pickled foods, Sugaring foods	X	61
	Hard-boiled foods	Hard-boiled agricultural product, Hard-boiled fishery product, Hard-boiled livestock product	X	8
	Alcoholic beverages	Takju (Korean turbid rice wine), Yakju (Korean cleared rice wine), Sake, Beer, Fruit wine, Soju (Korean Distilled Liquor), Whiskey, Brandy, General Distilled liquor, Liqueur, Other liquors	X	84
	Dried Fish/Shellfish fillets	Seasoned dried fish/shellfish fillet, Dried fish/shellfish fillet and other dried fish/shellfish fillet	X	47
Processed foods,	Other foods	Processed peanut and nut products, Capsules,
No mandatory		Starches, Processed fruitvegetable products,
labeling		Seasoned laver, Fried foods, Honey, Imitation cheese,
(Voluntary labeling)		Vegetable cream, Processed extract products,
		Processed corn products for popcorn, Wheat flours,
		Steamed rice, Uncooked foods(Saeng-Sik), Cereals,	X	448
		ices, Ready-to-eat foods (Except gimbap (rice rolled
		in dried laver), Hamburger, Sandwich), Processed
		mushroom products, Soft-shelled turtle products,
		Yeast foods, Enzyme foods, Pollen processed
		products, Royal jelly processed products, Agar
	General processed foods outside the scope of ‘Standards and specifications for each food product'	Processed cereal products, Processed bean products, Processed potato products, Processed marine products, Other processed products	X	144

¹⁾‘Processed food of raw material characteristics' category: foods usually consumed with other foods or used as ingredients for cooking.

Table 2.

Food and nutrient intake of Korean population according to the application of mandatory nutrition labeling

Food and nutrients	Total	Mandatory labeling	No mandatory labeling
Total food intake (g/day)	1,543.8 ± 16.2	2,384.4 ± 57.6	1,159.4 ± 14.3
Total food intake (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(24.9)	(75.1)
Energy (kcal/day)	2,074.0 ± 16.7	2,541.6 ± 10.1	1,532.4 ± 14.4
Energy (kcal/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(26.1)	(73.9)
Carbohydrate (g/day)	2,313.2 ± 52.3	22,74.4 ± 51.6	2,238.8 ± 52.3
Carbohydrate (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(23.8)	(76.2)
Protein (g/day)	22,73.7 ± 50.8	22,13.3 ± 50.3	22,60.4 ±5 0.8
Protein (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(18.1)	(81.9)
Fat (g/day)	22,47.7 ± 50.8	22,21.0 ±5 0.4	22,26.7 ± 50.5
Fat (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(44.1)	(55.9)
Saturated fatty acid (g/day)	22,14.3 ± 50.3	226,6.8 ± 50.2	225,7.5 ±5 0.2
Saturated fatty acid (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(47.4)	(52.6)
Sodium (mg/day)	4,027.5 ± 47.4	1,470.8 ± 22.9	2,556.7 ± 38.6
Sodium (mg/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(36.5)	(63.5)

¹⁾Mean ± SE (%) 2) N=7,242

Table 3.

Dietary food and nutrient intakes from 4 food groups (according to food type and nutrition labeling regulation) by age groups

Age group (n=7,242)
Food group	Food/Nutrient	1–5	6–11	12–18	19–29	30–49	50–64	65-	p-value¹⁾
Food group	Food/Nutrient	(n=507)	(n=640)	(n=654)	(n=670)	(n=2,023)	(n=1,450)	(n=1,298)	p-value¹⁾
Total	Total food intake	1,921.7 ± 20.1²⁾	1,242.9 ± 25.0	1,413.5 ±6 27.3	1,714.1 ± 538.8	1,738.0 ± 28.7	1,606.1 ± 526.4	1,192.4 ± 26.2	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Energy	1,332.6 ± 45.5	1,893.2 ± 33.9	2,219.6 ± 639.3	2,311.2 ±5 52.4	2,235.3 ± 27.6	2,033.4 ±5 24.5	1,687.9 ± 27.3	−
	(kcal/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Carbohydrate	1,202.6 ± 56.2	1,289.4 ± 55.1	1,331.6 ± 665.9	1,312.6 ±55 6.3	1,325.1 ± 53.7	1,325.7 ± 554.0	1,301.2 ±5 4.8	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Protein	1,545.9 ± 51.8	1,565.7 ± 51.8	1,581.5 ± 662.4	1,585.8 ± 552.4	1,580.5 ±5 1.2	1,570.8 ± 551.3	1,554.8 ±5 1.2	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Fat	1,537.3 ±5 2.1	1,550.9 ± 51.6	1,560.2 ± 661.6	1,564.8 ± 552.2	1,552.6 ± 51.1	1,537.7 ±55 0.9	1,523.7 ±5 0.7	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Saturated fatty acid	1,514.0 ±5 0.8	1,517.4 ± 50.6	1,518.8 ±66 0.5	1,519.7 ± 550.7	1,515.4 ±5 0.4	1,510.5 ± 550.3	1,556.8 ± 50.2	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Sodium	1,689.9 ± 85.1	2,801.3 ± 79.3	3,662.6 ± 104.8	4,405.3 ± 144.4	4,705.7 ± 88.4	4,161.5 ± 107.0	3,277.1 ± 90.9	−
	(mg/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
Raw food materials	Total food intake	1,389.9 ± 12.0	1,560.8 ± 16.4	1,659.3 ±6 19.0	1,694.4 ± 520.6	1,798.8 ± 13.9	1,888.8 ± 517.3	1,709.9 ± 17.2	< 0.0001
Raw food materials	(g/day)	55(42.9 ± 51.0)^ac3	⁾ 55(45.4 ± 50.9)^ab	55(46.4 ±66 0.9)^bd	55(41.9 ±55 0.9)^c	55(48.1 ±5 0.5)^d	55(57.0 ±55 0.6)^e	55(61.3 ±5 0.7)^f	< 0.0001
	Energy	1,607.4 ± 13.6	1,926.6 ± 21.0	1,123.4 ± 628.3	1,087.2 ± 536.0	1,156.8 ± 15.6	1,240.6 ± 518.3	1,148.9 ± 19.0	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	55(48.1 ±5 1.0)^ab	55(50.6 ± 51.0)^a	55(50.4 ± 661.0)^a	55(47.1 ±55 0.9)^b	55(53.3 ± 50.5)^c	55(62.6 ±55 0.7)^d	55(69.8 ± 50.6)^e	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	1,111.3 ± 52.7	1,158.8 ± 53.9	1,181.7 ± 665.1	1,158.9 ± 555.1	1,188.7 ± 52.9	1,222.9 ±55 3.7	1,222.8 ±5 3.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(56.2 ±5 1.1)^a	55(56.0 ± 51.1)^a	55(54.2 ± 661.1)^a	55(50.0 ±55 1.0)^b	55(58.6 ± 50.6)^c	55(68.7 ±55 0.7)^d	55(75.1 ± 50.6)^e	< 0.0001
	Protein	1,522.1 ± 51.0	1,537.0 ± 51.6	1,550.7 ±66 2.2	1,553.8 ±55 2.1	1,551.2 ±5 1.1	1,547.9 ± 551.1	1,537.8 ±5 1.0	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(48.6 ± 51.0)^a	55(54.6 ±5 1.0)^b	55(57.9 ±66 0.9)^c	55(58.1 ± 551.0)^c	55(60.9 ± 50.5)^d	55(66.3 ± 550.6)^e	55(68.6 ±5 0.5)^f	< 0.0001
	Fat	1,558.0 ±5 0.4	1,514.6 ± 50.7	1,519.8 ± 660.9	1,524.3 ±55 1.7	1,520.7 ± 50.7	1,516.9 ±55 0.6	1,510.6 ±5 0.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(24.5 ±5 0.8)^a	55(28.9 ± 51.0)^b	55(31.5 ± 661.0)^bc	55(33.6 ± 551.1)^c	55(37.2 ± 50.6)^d	55(43.6 ±55 0.8)^e	55(43.9 ±5 0.8)^e	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	1,552.5 ±5 0.2	1,554.6 ±5 0.3	1,556.4 ±66 0.3	1,557.8 ±55 0.6	1,556.4 ±5 0.3	1,554.9 ± 550.2	1,553.0 ±5 0.2	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(22.2 ±5 0.9)^a	55(27.4 ± 51.1)^b	55(32.7 ± 661.1)^c	55(35.6 ± 551.2)^c	55(39.2 ±5 0.6)^d	55(45.4 ±55 0.9)^e	55(45.6 ± 50.9)^e	< 0.0001
	Sodium	1,147.1 ±5 7.8	1,192.0 ± 10.1	1,235.3 ± 610.8	1,285.5 ±5 17.0	1,304.7 ± 57.9	1,289.1 ± 559.4	1,220.2 ± 14.5	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	55(10.0 ± 50.5)^a	55(57.5 ± 50.3)^bc	55(56.9 ± 660.3)^c	55(57.0 ± 550.3)^c	55(57.3 ± 50.2)^c	55(58.2 ±55 0.2)^b	55(57.5 ± 50.3)^bc	< 0.0001
Processed food of raw material characteristics	Total food intake	1,519.8 ±5 1.5	1,537.8 ± 51.9	1,559.5 ± 663.5	1,568.1 ± 553.3	1,561.5 ± 51.6	1,549.9 ± 551.7	1,537.1 ± 52.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(52.3 ± 50.2)^a	55(53.1 ±5 0.1)^b	55(54.0 ± 660.2)^c	55(54.1 ± 550.2)^c	55(53.7 ± 50.1)^c	55(53.2 ±55 0.1)^b	55(53.2 ±5 0.1)^b	< 0.0001
	Energy	1,559.0 ± 54.1	1,117.5 ± 57.2	1,171.9 ± 668.9	1,203.2 ± 558.9	1,181.1 ± 55.1	1,134.7 ± 554.1	1,582.6 ±5 3.1	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	55(54.4 ±5 0.2)^a	55(56.0 ± 50.3)^b	55(57.2 ±66 0.3)^c	55(58.4 ± 550.3)^d	55(57.9 ±5 0.2)^d	55(56.4 ±55 0.2)^b	55(54.7 ± 50.1)^a	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	1,554.1 ± 50.3	1,559.3 ± 50.6	1,514.4 ± 660.9	1,517.0 ± 550.7	1,517.8 ± 50.5	1,514.4 ± 550.5	1,559.7 ± 50.4	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(52.0 ±5 0.1)^a	55(53.2 ± 50.2)^b	55(54.3 ±66 0.2)^c	55(55.6 ± 550.2)^d	55(55.5 ± 50.1)^d	55(54.5 ± 550.1)^c	55(53.2 ±5 0.1)^b	< 0.0001
	Protein	1,550.9 ± 50.1	1,551.6 ± 50.1	1,552.5 ± 660.2	1,552.8 ± 550.2	1,552.9 ± 50.1	1,552.8 ± 550.1	1,552.2 ±5 0.1	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(52.1 ±5 0.2)^a	55(52.6 ± 50.1)^b	55(53.1 ± 0.2)^bc	55(53.4 ±55 0.2)^cd	55(53.8 ± 50.1)^de	55(54.0 ± 550.1)^e	55(54.1 ± 50.2)^e	< 0.0001
	Fat	1,554.4 ±5 0.3	1,558.3 ± 50.6	1,511.7 ± 660.7	1,514.0 ± 550.8	1,511.2 ±5 0.4	1,557.7 ± 550.3	1,554.1 ± 50.2	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(13.0 ± 50.7)^a	55(16.6 ±5 0.8)^b	55(18.5 ±66 0.8)^bc	55(21.4 ± 550.9)^d	55(21.4 ± 50.5)^d	55(19.9 ± 550.5)^cd	55(17.0 ±5 0.7)^b	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	1,550.6 ±5 0.0	1,551.2 ± 50.1	1,551.7 ± 660.1	1,552.1 ± 550.1	1,551.6 ± 50.1	1,551.1 ± 550.0	1,550.6 ± 50.0	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(55.9 ±5 0.4)^a	55(58.3 ± 50.6)^b	55(10.0 ±66 0.6)^c	55(12.4 ±55 0.6)^de	55(12.6 ± 50.4)^d	55(12.2 ±55 0.4)^d	55(11.0 ± 50.5)^ce	< 0.0001
	Sodium	1,670.6 ± 31.8	1,223.3 ± 53.8	1,681.7 ±6 75.0	2,161.5 ± 115.1	2,393.6 ± 73.9	2,119.5 ± 580.0	1,590.1 ± 57.3	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	55(39.2 ± 51.2)^a	55(42.7 ± 51.0)^b	55(42.7 ± 661.0)^b	55(44.9 ± 551.0)^b	55(47.6 ± 50.6)^c	55(48.1 ± 550.8)^c	55(47.1 ±5 0.8)^c	< 0.0001
Processed foods, No Mandatory labeling	Total food intake	(598.6 ± 57.2	(174.8 ± 58.4	(214.3 ± 59.2	2,410.8 ± 24.2	2,512.8 ± 16.3	2,446.0 ± 15.5	2,293.7 ± 12.9	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(10.6 ± 50.5)^a	5(14.1 ± 50.7)^b	5(15.4 ±5 0.6)^b	55(21.6 ± 50.8)^c	55(27.3 ±5 0.5)^d	55(25.8 ±5 0.6)^e	55(22.9 ± 50.7)^c	< 0.0001
	Energy	(145.2 ± 13.1	(232.4 ± 14.3	(252.8 ± 13.3	2,390.2 ± 25.1	2,451.5 ± 11.8	2,373.0 ± 11.7	2,236.3 ± 59.0	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	5(10.6 ± 50.6)^a	5(11.9 ± 50.6)^a	5(11.5 ± 50.6)^a	55(16.2 ± 50.7)^b	55(19.4 ± 50.4)^c	55(17.4 ± 50.4)^b	55(13.4 ±5 0.4)^d	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	(520.5 ± 51.7	(533.8 ± 52.8	(533.7 ± 51.9	2,538.5 ± 51.7	2,549.0 ± 51.1	2,540.8 ± 51.4	2,531.0 ± 51.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(59.9 ±5 0.6)^a	5(11.3 ±5 0.8)^ab	5(10.3 ± 50.6)^a	55(13.1 ±5 0.5)^b	55(15.3 ± 50.3)^c	55(12.8 ± 50.4)^b	55(10.3 ±5 0.4)^a	< 0.0001
	Protein	(557.2 ± 51.1	(510.9 ±5 0.5	(512.5 ± 50.7	2,514.0 ±5 0.8	2,514.7 ±5 0.4	2,512.5 ± 50.4	2,558.8 ±5 0.3	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(14.7 ± 50.8)^a	5(17.0 ± 50.7)^bc	5(16.3 ± 50.8)^ab	55(17.2 ±5 0.9)^bc	55(19.7 ± 50.5)^d	55(18.3 ±5 0.4)^c	55(16.2 ± 50.5)^ab	< 0.0001
	Fat	(553.5 ±5 0.3	(555.6 ±5 0.4	(556.5 ± 50.5	2,557.2 ± 50.6	2,557.4 ±5 0.2	2,556.1 ± 50.2	2,554.2 ± 50.1	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(10.4 ±5 0.7)^a5	5(11.9 ±5 0.7)^ab	5(12.2 ±5 0.8)^ab	55(12.9 ±5 0.8)^b	55(17.2 ±5 0.4)^c	55(19.2 ±5 0.6)^d	55(21.0 ± 50.6)^e	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	(550.8 ± 50.1	(551.3 ±5 0.1	(551.5 ± 50.1	2,551.7 ±5 0.2	2,551.9 ± 50.1	2,551.6 ±5 0.1	2,551.1 ±5 0.0	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(57.0 ± 50.6)^a	5(58.7 ± 50.6)^b	5(59.7 ± 50.8)^bc	55(10.9 ±5 0.8)^c	55(16.9 ±5 0.5)^d	55(19.3 ±5 0.7)^e	55(21.4 ±5 0.6)^f	< 0.0001
	Sodium	(325.0 ± 22.6	(710.2 ± 31.0	(864.6 ± 33.2	1,057.8 ± 50.4	1,291.4 ± 40.4	1,282.0 ± 49.2	1,070.2 ± 49.7	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	5(19.2 ± 51.0)^a	5(26.3 ±5 1.0)^b	5(25.1 ±5 0.8)^b	55(25.6 ±5 0.9)^b	55(30.0 ± 50.6)^c	55(33.1 ±5 0.8)^d	55(34.5 ± 51.0)^d	< 0.0001
Processed foods, Mandatory labeling	Total food intake	(413.4 ± 15.4	(469.4 ± 15.6	(480.4 ± 16.4	2,540.8 ± 18.2	2,364.9 ± 12.5	2,221.5 ± 58.7	2,151.7 ±5 7.4	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(44.2 ± 51.2)^a	5(37.4 ±5 0.9)^b	5(34.2 ± 51.0)^c	55(32.5 ± 51.0)^c	55(20.8 ± 50.6)^d	55(14.0 ± 50.5)^e	55(12.6 ± 50.5)^f	< 0.0001
	Energy	(520.9 ± 45.5	(616.7 ± 21.8	(671.6 ± 22.9	2,630.5 ± 23.2	2,446.0 ± 15.9	2,285.1 ± 12.1	2,220.0 ± 13.1	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	5(36.8 ±5 1.2)^a	5(31.5 ± 50.8)^b	5(30.9 ±5 1.0)^b	55(28.3 ±5 0.9)^c	55(19.4 ±5 0.5)^d	55(13.6 ±5 0.5)^e	55(12.0 ± 50.5)^f	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	(566.7 ± 56.4	(587.5 ± 53.2	(101.8 ± 53.9	2,598.2 ± 53.6	2,569.6 ± 52.6	2,547.6 ± 52.2	2,537.8 ± 52.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(31.9 ±5 1.2)^a	5(29.6 ±5 0.8)^a	5(31.2 ± 51.0)^a	55(31.3 ± 50.9)^a	55(20.6 ±5 0.6)^b	55(14.0 ± 50.6)^c	55(11.4 ±5 0.5)^d	< 0.0001
	Protein	(515.7 ±5 1.1	(516.3 ± 50.7	(515.8 ± 50.5	2,515.2 ± 50.6	2,511.7 ± 50.4	2,557.6 ±5 0.3	2,556.0 ±5 0.3	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(34.7 ± 51.3)^a	5(25.8 ± 50.8)^b	5(22.8 ±5 0.8)^c	55(21.3 ± 50.8)^c	55(15.6 ± 50.4)^d	55(11.4 ± 50.5)^e	55(11.0 ±5 0.5)^e	< 0.0001
	Fat	(521.5 ± 52.1	(522.4 ± 51.0	(522.1 ±5 0.9	2,519.2 ± 50.9	2,513.3 ± 50.6	2,557.1 ±5 0.4	2,554.8 ± 50.3	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(52.1 ±5 1.4)^a	5(42.6 ±5 1.1)^b	5(37.9 ±5 1.3)^c	55(32.1 ±5 1.6)^d	55(24.2 ±5 0.6)^e	55(17.4 ±5 0.7)^f	55(18.0 ± 50.9)^f	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	(510.0 ± 50.8	(510.3 ± 50.5	(559.2 ± 50.4	2,558.1 ±5 0.4	2,555.4 ± 50.2	2,553.0 ±5 0.1	2,552.0 ± 50.1	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(64.9 ±5 1.3)^a	5(55.6 ±5 1.2)^b	5(47.6 ± 51.4)^c	55(41.1 ± 51.4)^d	55(31.3 ±5 0.7)^e	55(23.1 ± 50.9)^f	55(22.0 ±5 1.0)^f	< 0.0001
	Sodium	(547.1 ± 66.8	(675.8 ± 45.3	(881.0 ± 46.1	2,900.5 ± 43.9	2,716.1 ± 29.7	2,470.9 ± 30.4	2,396.6 ± 35.4	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	5(31.6 ± 51.4)^a	5(23.5 ± 50.9)^b	5(25.3 ± 51.1)^b	55(22.6 ± 51.0)^b	55(15.1 ±5 0.5)^c	55(10.6 ± 50.5)^d	55(10.8 ±5 0.6)^d	< 0.0001

¹⁾p-value by ANOVA test 2) Mean ± SE (% mean) 3) Values with different alphabets are significantly different by bonferroni's test at p<0.05

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Study of the Coverage of Nutrition Labeling System on the Nutrient Intake of Koreans - using the 2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) Data

Korean J Community Nutr. 2018;23(2):116-127. Published online April 30, 2018

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.2.116

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Study of the Coverage of Nutrition Labeling System on the Nutrient Intake of Koreans - using the 2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) Data

Fig. 1. Proportion of food and nutrient intake from 4 food groups according to the food type and nutrition labeling regulation

Fig. 1.

Study of the Coverage of Nutrition Labeling System on the Nutrient Intake of Koreans - using the 2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) Data

Table 1.

Food group classification according to food type and nutrition labeling regulation

Group	Classification		Mandatory labeling	The number of food item (Total=5,120)
Group	Food class (Large classification)	Food type (Small classification)	Mandatory labeling	The number of food item (Total=5,120)
Raw food materials	Raw food materials	Agricultural/Fishery/Livestock and egg Products	X	1,588
Processed foods of raw material characteristics	Sugars	White sugar, Brown sugar, Other Sugars	X	20
	Glucose	Liquid glucose, Powder or crystalline glucose	X	1
	Fructose	Liquid fructose, Crystalline fructose, Other fructoses	X	1
	Glutinous Rice Jellies (Yeat)	Molasses, Other yeats, Dextrin	X	25
	Sugar Syrups		X	4
	Oligosaccharides	Fructo-oligosaccharides, Isomalto-oligosaccharide,
		Galacto-oligosaccharide, Malto-oligosaccharide, Xylo-oligosaccharide, Gentio-oligosaccharide, Other oligosaccharides	X	2
	Edible Oils and Fats	Soybean oil, Corn oil, Canola oil, Rice bran oil, Sesame
		oil, Perilla seed oil, Safflower oil, Sunflower oil,
		Cottonseed oil, Peanut oil, Olive oil, Palm oil, Coconut	O	80
		oil, Mixed oil, Processed fat, Shortening, Margarine,
		Hot pepper seed oil, Flavored oil, Other edible oils
	Soy Sauces or Pastes	Meju(Fermented soybeans), Korean style soy sauce,
		Brewed soy sauce, Acid-hydrolyzed soy sauce,
		Enzyme-hydrolyzed soy sauce, Mixed soy sauce,
		Korean soybean paste, Soybean paste, Seasoned soybean paste, Gochujang (soy paste with red peppers), Seasoned gochujang(Seasoned soy paste with red peppers), Chunjang (Black-colored soy paste), Mixed paste, Others	O	126
		Korean style Meju (Fermented soybeans), Korean
		traditional soy sauce, Korean style soybean paste,	X	5
		Cheonggukjang (Ground fermented soybean)
	Seasonings	Vinegars, Sauces, Tomato ketchup, Curry, Powdered
		red pepper or shredded red pepper, Spice products,	X	148
		Composite seasonings
	Dressings	Dressing, Mayonnaise	X	19
	Other Foods	Edible salts	X	47
Processed foods, mandatory labeling	Confectioneries	Confectioneries, Candies, Ice candies	O	319
	Breads or rice cakes	Breads, Dumplings	O	170
	Cocoa products or chocolates	Chocolates	O	32
	Jams	Jam, Marmalade, Other Jams	O	16
	Processed meat and egg products	Processed meat product (Sausages, Hams)	O	117
	Fish meat products	Fish sausage	O	6
	Noodles	Noodles, Naengmyeon (Cold noodle), Dangmyeon (Chinese noodle), Oil-fried noodles, Pastas, Other noodles	O	143
	Coffees	Formulated coffee, Liquid coffee	O	19
	Beverages	Fruit/vegetable beverages, Carbonated beverages, Soymilks, Fermented beverages, Ginseng/ red ginseng beverages, Other beverages	O	269
	Foods for special dietary uses	Infant formula, Follow-up formula, Cereal based foods for infants and young children, Other foods for infants and young children, Foods for special medical purpose, Foods for weight control, Foods for pregnant or lactating women	O	26
	Other foods	Ready-to-eat foods (Gimbap (rice rolled in dried laver), Hamburger, Sandwich)	O	61
	Processing standards and	Milks, Fermented milks, Processed milks, Ice creams,
	ingredient specifications for livestock products	Milk powders, Cheese, Butters	O	519
	Long shelf-life foods (Retort foods)		O	35
Processed foods, No mandatory labeling (Voluntary labeling)	Confectioneries	Chewing gum	X	12
	Breads or rice cakes	Rice cakes	X	23
	Cocoa products or chocolates	Processed cocoa products	X	10
	Processed meat and egg products	Processed meat product (Except sausages and hams), processed egg product	X	93
	Fish meat products	Fish cake, Half-finished fish meat product, Fish flesh, Fish meat paste, Other processed fish meat products	X	135
	Bean-curds or Starch Jellies (Mook)	Bean curd, Ground processed bean curd, Yuba, Processed bean curd, Starch jelly(Mook)	X	37
	Teas	Leached tea (Infused tea), Liquid tea, Solid tea	X	87
	Coffees	Roasted coffee (Roasted coffee bean or that is grinded), Instant coffee(Dried form of soluble extract of coffee)	X	35
	Kimchies	Kimchisok (Seasoned materials for kimchi), Chinese cabbage kimchi, Other kimchi	X	21
	Salted and fermented seafoods (Jeotkal)	Salted and fermented seafoods, Spiced salted and fermented seafoods, Joet, Spiced/seasoned Jeot, Sikhae	X	77
	Pickles	Pickled foods, Sugaring foods	X	61
	Hard-boiled foods	Hard-boiled agricultural product, Hard-boiled fishery product, Hard-boiled livestock product	X	8
	Alcoholic beverages	Takju (Korean turbid rice wine), Yakju (Korean cleared rice wine), Sake, Beer, Fruit wine, Soju (Korean Distilled Liquor), Whiskey, Brandy, General Distilled liquor, Liqueur, Other liquors	X	84
	Dried Fish/Shellfish fillets	Seasoned dried fish/shellfish fillet, Dried fish/shellfish fillet and other dried fish/shellfish fillet	X	47
Processed foods,	Other foods	Processed peanut and nut products, Capsules,
No mandatory		Starches, Processed fruitvegetable products,
labeling		Seasoned laver, Fried foods, Honey, Imitation cheese,
(Voluntary labeling)		Vegetable cream, Processed extract products,
		Processed corn products for popcorn, Wheat flours,
		Steamed rice, Uncooked foods(Saeng-Sik), Cereals,	X	448
		ices, Ready-to-eat foods (Except gimbap (rice rolled
		in dried laver), Hamburger, Sandwich), Processed
		mushroom products, Soft-shelled turtle products,
		Yeast foods, Enzyme foods, Pollen processed
		products, Royal jelly processed products, Agar
	General processed foods outside the scope of ‘Standards and specifications for each food product'	Processed cereal products, Processed bean products, Processed potato products, Processed marine products, Other processed products	X	144

¹⁾‘Processed food of raw material characteristics' category: foods usually consumed with other foods or used as ingredients for cooking.

Table 2.

Food and nutrient intake of Korean population according to the application of mandatory nutrition labeling

Food and nutrients	Total	Mandatory labeling	No mandatory labeling
Total food intake (g/day)	1,543.8 ± 16.2	2,384.4 ± 57.6	1,159.4 ± 14.3
Total food intake (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(24.9)	(75.1)
Energy (kcal/day)	2,074.0 ± 16.7	2,541.6 ± 10.1	1,532.4 ± 14.4
Energy (kcal/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(26.1)	(73.9)
Carbohydrate (g/day)	2,313.2 ± 52.3	22,74.4 ± 51.6	2,238.8 ± 52.3
Carbohydrate (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(23.8)	(76.2)
Protein (g/day)	22,73.7 ± 50.8	22,13.3 ± 50.3	22,60.4 ±5 0.8
Protein (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(18.1)	(81.9)
Fat (g/day)	22,47.7 ± 50.8	22,21.0 ±5 0.4	22,26.7 ± 50.5
Fat (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(44.1)	(55.9)
Saturated fatty acid (g/day)	22,14.3 ± 50.3	226,6.8 ± 50.2	225,7.5 ±5 0.2
Saturated fatty acid (g/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(47.4)	(52.6)
Sodium (mg/day)	4,027.5 ± 47.4	1,470.8 ± 22.9	2,556.7 ± 38.6
Sodium (mg/day)	(100.0)¹⁾	(36.5)	(63.5)

¹⁾Mean ± SE (%) 2) N=7,242

Table 3.

Dietary food and nutrient intakes from 4 food groups (according to food type and nutrition labeling regulation) by age groups

Age group (n=7,242)
Food group	Food/Nutrient	1–5	6–11	12–18	19–29	30–49	50–64	65-	p-value¹⁾
Food group	Food/Nutrient	(n=507)	(n=640)	(n=654)	(n=670)	(n=2,023)	(n=1,450)	(n=1,298)	p-value¹⁾
Total	Total food intake	1,921.7 ± 20.1²⁾	1,242.9 ± 25.0	1,413.5 ±6 27.3	1,714.1 ± 538.8	1,738.0 ± 28.7	1,606.1 ± 526.4	1,192.4 ± 26.2	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Energy	1,332.6 ± 45.5	1,893.2 ± 33.9	2,219.6 ± 639.3	2,311.2 ±5 52.4	2,235.3 ± 27.6	2,033.4 ±5 24.5	1,687.9 ± 27.3	−
	(kcal/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Carbohydrate	1,202.6 ± 56.2	1,289.4 ± 55.1	1,331.6 ± 665.9	1,312.6 ±55 6.3	1,325.1 ± 53.7	1,325.7 ± 554.0	1,301.2 ±5 4.8	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Protein	1,545.9 ± 51.8	1,565.7 ± 51.8	1,581.5 ± 662.4	1,585.8 ± 552.4	1,580.5 ±5 1.2	1,570.8 ± 551.3	1,554.8 ±5 1.2	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Fat	1,537.3 ±5 2.1	1,550.9 ± 51.6	1,560.2 ± 661.6	1,564.8 ± 552.2	1,552.6 ± 51.1	1,537.7 ±55 0.9	1,523.7 ±5 0.7	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Saturated fatty acid	1,514.0 ±5 0.8	1,517.4 ± 50.6	1,518.8 ±66 0.5	1,519.7 ± 550.7	1,515.4 ±5 0.4	1,510.5 ± 550.3	1,556.8 ± 50.2	−
	(g/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
	Sodium	1,689.9 ± 85.1	2,801.3 ± 79.3	3,662.6 ± 104.8	4,405.3 ± 144.4	4,705.7 ± 88.4	4,161.5 ± 107.0	3,277.1 ± 90.9	−
	(mg/day)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	−
Raw food materials	Total food intake	1,389.9 ± 12.0	1,560.8 ± 16.4	1,659.3 ±6 19.0	1,694.4 ± 520.6	1,798.8 ± 13.9	1,888.8 ± 517.3	1,709.9 ± 17.2	< 0.0001
Raw food materials	(g/day)	55(42.9 ± 51.0)^ac3	⁾ 55(45.4 ± 50.9)^ab	55(46.4 ±66 0.9)^bd	55(41.9 ±55 0.9)^c	55(48.1 ±5 0.5)^d	55(57.0 ±55 0.6)^e	55(61.3 ±5 0.7)^f	< 0.0001
	Energy	1,607.4 ± 13.6	1,926.6 ± 21.0	1,123.4 ± 628.3	1,087.2 ± 536.0	1,156.8 ± 15.6	1,240.6 ± 518.3	1,148.9 ± 19.0	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	55(48.1 ±5 1.0)^ab	55(50.6 ± 51.0)^a	55(50.4 ± 661.0)^a	55(47.1 ±55 0.9)^b	55(53.3 ± 50.5)^c	55(62.6 ±55 0.7)^d	55(69.8 ± 50.6)^e	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	1,111.3 ± 52.7	1,158.8 ± 53.9	1,181.7 ± 665.1	1,158.9 ± 555.1	1,188.7 ± 52.9	1,222.9 ±55 3.7	1,222.8 ±5 3.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(56.2 ±5 1.1)^a	55(56.0 ± 51.1)^a	55(54.2 ± 661.1)^a	55(50.0 ±55 1.0)^b	55(58.6 ± 50.6)^c	55(68.7 ±55 0.7)^d	55(75.1 ± 50.6)^e	< 0.0001
	Protein	1,522.1 ± 51.0	1,537.0 ± 51.6	1,550.7 ±66 2.2	1,553.8 ±55 2.1	1,551.2 ±5 1.1	1,547.9 ± 551.1	1,537.8 ±5 1.0	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(48.6 ± 51.0)^a	55(54.6 ±5 1.0)^b	55(57.9 ±66 0.9)^c	55(58.1 ± 551.0)^c	55(60.9 ± 50.5)^d	55(66.3 ± 550.6)^e	55(68.6 ±5 0.5)^f	< 0.0001
	Fat	1,558.0 ±5 0.4	1,514.6 ± 50.7	1,519.8 ± 660.9	1,524.3 ±55 1.7	1,520.7 ± 50.7	1,516.9 ±55 0.6	1,510.6 ±5 0.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(24.5 ±5 0.8)^a	55(28.9 ± 51.0)^b	55(31.5 ± 661.0)^bc	55(33.6 ± 551.1)^c	55(37.2 ± 50.6)^d	55(43.6 ±55 0.8)^e	55(43.9 ±5 0.8)^e	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	1,552.5 ±5 0.2	1,554.6 ±5 0.3	1,556.4 ±66 0.3	1,557.8 ±55 0.6	1,556.4 ±5 0.3	1,554.9 ± 550.2	1,553.0 ±5 0.2	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(22.2 ±5 0.9)^a	55(27.4 ± 51.1)^b	55(32.7 ± 661.1)^c	55(35.6 ± 551.2)^c	55(39.2 ±5 0.6)^d	55(45.4 ±55 0.9)^e	55(45.6 ± 50.9)^e	< 0.0001
	Sodium	1,147.1 ±5 7.8	1,192.0 ± 10.1	1,235.3 ± 610.8	1,285.5 ±5 17.0	1,304.7 ± 57.9	1,289.1 ± 559.4	1,220.2 ± 14.5	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	55(10.0 ± 50.5)^a	55(57.5 ± 50.3)^bc	55(56.9 ± 660.3)^c	55(57.0 ± 550.3)^c	55(57.3 ± 50.2)^c	55(58.2 ±55 0.2)^b	55(57.5 ± 50.3)^bc	< 0.0001
Processed food of raw material characteristics	Total food intake	1,519.8 ±5 1.5	1,537.8 ± 51.9	1,559.5 ± 663.5	1,568.1 ± 553.3	1,561.5 ± 51.6	1,549.9 ± 551.7	1,537.1 ± 52.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(52.3 ± 50.2)^a	55(53.1 ±5 0.1)^b	55(54.0 ± 660.2)^c	55(54.1 ± 550.2)^c	55(53.7 ± 50.1)^c	55(53.2 ±55 0.1)^b	55(53.2 ±5 0.1)^b	< 0.0001
	Energy	1,559.0 ± 54.1	1,117.5 ± 57.2	1,171.9 ± 668.9	1,203.2 ± 558.9	1,181.1 ± 55.1	1,134.7 ± 554.1	1,582.6 ±5 3.1	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	55(54.4 ±5 0.2)^a	55(56.0 ± 50.3)^b	55(57.2 ±66 0.3)^c	55(58.4 ± 550.3)^d	55(57.9 ±5 0.2)^d	55(56.4 ±55 0.2)^b	55(54.7 ± 50.1)^a	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	1,554.1 ± 50.3	1,559.3 ± 50.6	1,514.4 ± 660.9	1,517.0 ± 550.7	1,517.8 ± 50.5	1,514.4 ± 550.5	1,559.7 ± 50.4	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(52.0 ±5 0.1)^a	55(53.2 ± 50.2)^b	55(54.3 ±66 0.2)^c	55(55.6 ± 550.2)^d	55(55.5 ± 50.1)^d	55(54.5 ± 550.1)^c	55(53.2 ±5 0.1)^b	< 0.0001
	Protein	1,550.9 ± 50.1	1,551.6 ± 50.1	1,552.5 ± 660.2	1,552.8 ± 550.2	1,552.9 ± 50.1	1,552.8 ± 550.1	1,552.2 ±5 0.1	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(52.1 ±5 0.2)^a	55(52.6 ± 50.1)^b	55(53.1 ± 0.2)^bc	55(53.4 ±55 0.2)^cd	55(53.8 ± 50.1)^de	55(54.0 ± 550.1)^e	55(54.1 ± 50.2)^e	< 0.0001
	Fat	1,554.4 ±5 0.3	1,558.3 ± 50.6	1,511.7 ± 660.7	1,514.0 ± 550.8	1,511.2 ±5 0.4	1,557.7 ± 550.3	1,554.1 ± 50.2	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(13.0 ± 50.7)^a	55(16.6 ±5 0.8)^b	55(18.5 ±66 0.8)^bc	55(21.4 ± 550.9)^d	55(21.4 ± 50.5)^d	55(19.9 ± 550.5)^cd	55(17.0 ±5 0.7)^b	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	1,550.6 ±5 0.0	1,551.2 ± 50.1	1,551.7 ± 660.1	1,552.1 ± 550.1	1,551.6 ± 50.1	1,551.1 ± 550.0	1,550.6 ± 50.0	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	55(55.9 ±5 0.4)^a	55(58.3 ± 50.6)^b	55(10.0 ±66 0.6)^c	55(12.4 ±55 0.6)^de	55(12.6 ± 50.4)^d	55(12.2 ±55 0.4)^d	55(11.0 ± 50.5)^ce	< 0.0001
	Sodium	1,670.6 ± 31.8	1,223.3 ± 53.8	1,681.7 ±6 75.0	2,161.5 ± 115.1	2,393.6 ± 73.9	2,119.5 ± 580.0	1,590.1 ± 57.3	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	55(39.2 ± 51.2)^a	55(42.7 ± 51.0)^b	55(42.7 ± 661.0)^b	55(44.9 ± 551.0)^b	55(47.6 ± 50.6)^c	55(48.1 ± 550.8)^c	55(47.1 ±5 0.8)^c	< 0.0001
Processed foods, No Mandatory labeling	Total food intake	(598.6 ± 57.2	(174.8 ± 58.4	(214.3 ± 59.2	2,410.8 ± 24.2	2,512.8 ± 16.3	2,446.0 ± 15.5	2,293.7 ± 12.9	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(10.6 ± 50.5)^a	5(14.1 ± 50.7)^b	5(15.4 ±5 0.6)^b	55(21.6 ± 50.8)^c	55(27.3 ±5 0.5)^d	55(25.8 ±5 0.6)^e	55(22.9 ± 50.7)^c	< 0.0001
	Energy	(145.2 ± 13.1	(232.4 ± 14.3	(252.8 ± 13.3	2,390.2 ± 25.1	2,451.5 ± 11.8	2,373.0 ± 11.7	2,236.3 ± 59.0	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	5(10.6 ± 50.6)^a	5(11.9 ± 50.6)^a	5(11.5 ± 50.6)^a	55(16.2 ± 50.7)^b	55(19.4 ± 50.4)^c	55(17.4 ± 50.4)^b	55(13.4 ±5 0.4)^d	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	(520.5 ± 51.7	(533.8 ± 52.8	(533.7 ± 51.9	2,538.5 ± 51.7	2,549.0 ± 51.1	2,540.8 ± 51.4	2,531.0 ± 51.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(59.9 ±5 0.6)^a	5(11.3 ±5 0.8)^ab	5(10.3 ± 50.6)^a	55(13.1 ±5 0.5)^b	55(15.3 ± 50.3)^c	55(12.8 ± 50.4)^b	55(10.3 ±5 0.4)^a	< 0.0001
	Protein	(557.2 ± 51.1	(510.9 ±5 0.5	(512.5 ± 50.7	2,514.0 ±5 0.8	2,514.7 ±5 0.4	2,512.5 ± 50.4	2,558.8 ±5 0.3	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(14.7 ± 50.8)^a	5(17.0 ± 50.7)^bc	5(16.3 ± 50.8)^ab	55(17.2 ±5 0.9)^bc	55(19.7 ± 50.5)^d	55(18.3 ±5 0.4)^c	55(16.2 ± 50.5)^ab	< 0.0001
	Fat	(553.5 ±5 0.3	(555.6 ±5 0.4	(556.5 ± 50.5	2,557.2 ± 50.6	2,557.4 ±5 0.2	2,556.1 ± 50.2	2,554.2 ± 50.1	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(10.4 ±5 0.7)^a5	5(11.9 ±5 0.7)^ab	5(12.2 ±5 0.8)^ab	55(12.9 ±5 0.8)^b	55(17.2 ±5 0.4)^c	55(19.2 ±5 0.6)^d	55(21.0 ± 50.6)^e	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	(550.8 ± 50.1	(551.3 ±5 0.1	(551.5 ± 50.1	2,551.7 ±5 0.2	2,551.9 ± 50.1	2,551.6 ±5 0.1	2,551.1 ±5 0.0	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(57.0 ± 50.6)^a	5(58.7 ± 50.6)^b	5(59.7 ± 50.8)^bc	55(10.9 ±5 0.8)^c	55(16.9 ±5 0.5)^d	55(19.3 ±5 0.7)^e	55(21.4 ±5 0.6)^f	< 0.0001
	Sodium	(325.0 ± 22.6	(710.2 ± 31.0	(864.6 ± 33.2	1,057.8 ± 50.4	1,291.4 ± 40.4	1,282.0 ± 49.2	1,070.2 ± 49.7	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	5(19.2 ± 51.0)^a	5(26.3 ±5 1.0)^b	5(25.1 ±5 0.8)^b	55(25.6 ±5 0.9)^b	55(30.0 ± 50.6)^c	55(33.1 ±5 0.8)^d	55(34.5 ± 51.0)^d	< 0.0001
Processed foods, Mandatory labeling	Total food intake	(413.4 ± 15.4	(469.4 ± 15.6	(480.4 ± 16.4	2,540.8 ± 18.2	2,364.9 ± 12.5	2,221.5 ± 58.7	2,151.7 ±5 7.4	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(44.2 ± 51.2)^a	5(37.4 ±5 0.9)^b	5(34.2 ± 51.0)^c	55(32.5 ± 51.0)^c	55(20.8 ± 50.6)^d	55(14.0 ± 50.5)^e	55(12.6 ± 50.5)^f	< 0.0001
	Energy	(520.9 ± 45.5	(616.7 ± 21.8	(671.6 ± 22.9	2,630.5 ± 23.2	2,446.0 ± 15.9	2,285.1 ± 12.1	2,220.0 ± 13.1	< 0.0001
	(kcal/day)	5(36.8 ±5 1.2)^a	5(31.5 ± 50.8)^b	5(30.9 ±5 1.0)^b	55(28.3 ±5 0.9)^c	55(19.4 ±5 0.5)^d	55(13.6 ±5 0.5)^e	55(12.0 ± 50.5)^f	< 0.0001
	Carbohydrate	(566.7 ± 56.4	(587.5 ± 53.2	(101.8 ± 53.9	2,598.2 ± 53.6	2,569.6 ± 52.6	2,547.6 ± 52.2	2,537.8 ± 52.5	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(31.9 ±5 1.2)^a	5(29.6 ±5 0.8)^a	5(31.2 ± 51.0)^a	55(31.3 ± 50.9)^a	55(20.6 ±5 0.6)^b	55(14.0 ± 50.6)^c	55(11.4 ±5 0.5)^d	< 0.0001
	Protein	(515.7 ±5 1.1	(516.3 ± 50.7	(515.8 ± 50.5	2,515.2 ± 50.6	2,511.7 ± 50.4	2,557.6 ±5 0.3	2,556.0 ±5 0.3	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(34.7 ± 51.3)^a	5(25.8 ± 50.8)^b	5(22.8 ±5 0.8)^c	55(21.3 ± 50.8)^c	55(15.6 ± 50.4)^d	55(11.4 ± 50.5)^e	55(11.0 ±5 0.5)^e	< 0.0001
	Fat	(521.5 ± 52.1	(522.4 ± 51.0	(522.1 ±5 0.9	2,519.2 ± 50.9	2,513.3 ± 50.6	2,557.1 ±5 0.4	2,554.8 ± 50.3	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(52.1 ±5 1.4)^a	5(42.6 ±5 1.1)^b	5(37.9 ±5 1.3)^c	55(32.1 ±5 1.6)^d	55(24.2 ±5 0.6)^e	55(17.4 ±5 0.7)^f	55(18.0 ± 50.9)^f	< 0.0001
	Saturated fatty acid	(510.0 ± 50.8	(510.3 ± 50.5	(559.2 ± 50.4	2,558.1 ±5 0.4	2,555.4 ± 50.2	2,553.0 ±5 0.1	2,552.0 ± 50.1	< 0.0001
	(g/day)	5(64.9 ±5 1.3)^a	5(55.6 ±5 1.2)^b	5(47.6 ± 51.4)^c	55(41.1 ± 51.4)^d	55(31.3 ±5 0.7)^e	55(23.1 ± 50.9)^f	55(22.0 ±5 1.0)^f	< 0.0001
	Sodium	(547.1 ± 66.8	(675.8 ± 45.3	(881.0 ± 46.1	2,900.5 ± 43.9	2,716.1 ± 29.7	2,470.9 ± 30.4	2,396.6 ± 35.4	< 0.0001
	(mg/day)	5(31.6 ± 51.4)^a	5(23.5 ± 50.9)^b	5(25.3 ± 51.1)^b	55(22.6 ± 51.0)^b	55(15.1 ±5 0.5)^c	55(10.6 ± 50.5)^d	55(10.8 ±5 0.6)^d	< 0.0001

¹⁾p-value by ANOVA test 2) Mean ± SE (% mean) 3) Values with different alphabets are significantly different by bonferroni's test at p<0.05