Korean Journal of Community Nutrition

Research Articles

[English]
Arterial stiffness index, physical activity and food and nutrient intake: cross-sectional study in adults aged 40 years and older: Eun-A Kim, Yun-Mi Kim, Eun-Kyung Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2024;29(2):81-96. Published online April 30, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.29.2.81

Abstract PDF: Objectives
This study aimed to investigate arterial stiffness index, physical activity, and food and nutrient intake in middle-aged adults over 40 years when the incidence of cardiovascular disease begins to increase.
Methods
This study included 106 subjects (48 males and 58 females) aged between 40 and 64 years. The arterial stiffness index (brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity [baPWV], and anklebrachial index [ABI]) were measured using a blood pressure pulse wave testing device. Physical activity was assessed using the Korean version of the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, and food and nutrient intake was calculated using the Food Frequency Questionnaire.
Results
The mean age of the subjects was 54.4 years. Although the ABI of the subjects was within the normal range, they were divided into tertiles to compare physical activity and food and nutrient intake. In males, the time spent on moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was significantly higher in T3 (600.6 min/week) than in T1 (304.4 min/week). In females, the time spent in sedentary behavior was significantly lower in T3 (294.5 min/week) than in T1 (472.1 min/week). In addition, the frequency of fish consumption was significantly higher in T3 (1.27 frequency/day) than in T1 (0.64 frequency/day) in females. Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and ω-3 fatty acid intake, adjusted for energy intake, were significantly positively correlated with ABI (r = 0.200 and r = 0.218, respectively).
Conclusions
High MVPA (in males), low sedentary behavior (in females), and PUFA and ω-3 fatty acid intake through fish consumption may be associated with low peripheral artery stiffness. Therefore, arteriosclerosis can be prevented through physical activity and proper dietary therapy.

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[Korean]
Estimation of the Usual Food Intake Distribution Reflecting the Consumption Frequency and a Comparison of the Proportion of Non-consumers: Based on the KNHANES 2009: Su Ji Ham, Dong Woo Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2021;26(4):296-306. Published online August 31, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2021.26.4.296

Objectives
The objective of this study was to estimate the distribution of the usual dietary intake of foods with respect to the probability of consumption derived from the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) of the 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES).
Methods
The intake quantity and frequency of 63 food items were assessed from the 2009 KNHANES which was completed by 7,708 participants. The participants completed one or two 24-h dietary recalls and one FFQ. The usual intake distribution was estimated using the multiple source method (MSM), and the proportion of nonconsumers was calculated through the usual intake distribution. This was then compared with the proportion of non-consumers from the 24-hour recall method.
Results
The difference in the proportion of non-consumers ranged from 2% to 82.9%, indicating that there is a very large difference based on food groups. The food groups in which the proportion of non-consumers did not differ was composed of foods consumed daily, such as ‘rice’, ‘cereal and barley’, and ‘Chinese cabbage and kimchi’, or foods with distinct palatability such as ‘coffee’ and ‘alcohol’. On the other hand, in the case of the food groups with a high difference in the proportion of non-consumers, most comprised fruits that emphasized seasonality.
Conclusions
In the case of foods or food groups that are occasionally consumed, it is desirable to use 2 recalls with additional FFQ data by combining the consumption frequency and the quantity consumed.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Dietary Management of Obesity
Sang Hoon Lee, San Ha Kim, Sung Chul Park
The Korean Journal of Gastroenterology.2024; 83(3): 87. CrossRef

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Original Articles

[English]
Comparison of 24-hour Recalls with a Food Frequency Questionnaire in Assessing Coffee Consumption: The Health Examinees (HEXA) Study: An Na Kim, Jiyoung Youn, Hyun Jeong Cho, Taiyue Jin, Sangah Shin, Jung Eun Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(1):48-60. Published online February 29, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.48

Abstract PDF PubReader ePub

OBJECTIVES
Most cohort studies used food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) to evaluate coffee consumption as it assesses habitual dietary patterns, whereas some studies have used the 24-hour recalls (24HR) as it elicits in-depth description of foods and the amount eaten. The aim of this study was to compare FFQs and 24HR to assess the consumption of various types of coffee.
METHODS
We included 25,904 participants aged 40 years or older from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study of the Korean Genome and Epidemiologic Study (KoGES). Each participant completed one FFQ and one-day (n=11,280) or two-day 24HR (n=14,624). We classified coffee types into: black coffee, coffee with sugar and cream, and coffee with sugar alone or cream alone. We compared the proportions of nondrinkers, black coffee, and coffee with sugar and cream through FFQ and 24HR.
RESULTS
Among those who completed one FFQ and one-day 24HR, 39.4% of â€œnondrinkersâ€ on one-day 24HR reported that they did not drink coffee on their FFQs. Whereas among those who complete two-day 24HR, 71.2% of â€œnondrinkersâ€ on two-day 24HR said that they did not drink coffee on their FFQs. Among those who completed one FFQ and oneday 24HR, 58.3% marked â€œblack coffeeâ€ on one-day 24HR said that they drank black coffee on their FFQs. Among those who complete two-day 24HR, 58.8% marked â€œblack coffeeâ€ on two-day 24HR said that they drank black coffee on their FFQs. The kappa coefficients and percent agreements were 0.4 and 59.6%, respectively, for the comparison of coffee intake between FFQ and one-day 24HR, and 0.6 and 72.8%, respectively, for the comparison of coffee intake between FFQ and two-day 24HR.
CONCLUSIONS
We found discrepancies between FFQs and 24HR in the types of coffee consumed. Such limitations should be considered when using the 24HR data to examine the effect of coffee consumption on disease development.

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Association Between Instant Coffee Consumption and the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Results From a Community-Based Prospective Cohort
Moon-Kyung Shin, Kyoung-Nam Kim
Journal of Korean Medical Science.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Genetic variation rs1121980 in the fat mass and obesity-associated gene (FTO) is associated with dietary intake in Koreans
Young Goh, Jeong-Hwa Choi
Food & Nutrition Research.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Coffee Consumption and the Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality in the Korean Population
Seong-Ah Kim, Li-Juan Tan, Sangah Shin
Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics.2021; 121(11): 2221. CrossRef

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[English]
Dietary Factors Associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in School-aged Children: Minji An, Hyojin An, Hwang Hyo Jeong, Ho Jang Kwon, Mina Ha, Yun Chul Hong, Soo Jong Hong, Se Young Oh; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(5):397-410. Published online October 31, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.5.397

Abstract PDF PubReader

OBJECTIVES
An association between dietary patterns and mental health in children has been suggested in a series of studies, yet detailed analyses of dietary patterns and their effects on ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) are limited.
METHODS
We included 4569 children who had dietary intake data as part of the CHEER (Children's Health and Environmental Research) study conducted nationwide from 2005 to 2010. We assessed ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) by the DuPaul's ADHD Rating Scales and dietary intake by a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Using intake data, we constructed five dietary patterns: â€œPlant foods & fish,â€â€œSweets,â€â€œMeat & fish,â€â€œFruits & dairy products,â€ and â€œWheat based.â€ RESULTS: The overall proportion of ADHD was 12.3%. Boys (17.8%) showed a higher rate of ADHD than girls (6.5%). The total intake of calories (85 kcal) and plant fat (2g) in the ADHD group was significantly higher than that of the normal group. ADHD was significantly negatively associated with dietary habits such as having breakfast and meal frequency, and positively associated with eating speed, unbalanced diet, overeating, and rice consumption. Regarding dietary patterns, the â€œSweetsâ€ category was relevant to high ADHD risk (OR 1.59, 95% CI: 1.18, 2.15 for Q5 vs. Q1) in a linear relationship. An inverse, non-linear association was found between â€œFruits & dairy productsâ€ and ADHD (OR 0.55, 95% CI: 0.39, 0.76 for Q4 vs. Q1).
CONCLUSIONS
Our study confirms both positive and negative associations between diet and ADHD in elementary school age children. Moreover, linear or nonlinear associations between diet and ADHD draw attention to the possible threshold role of nutrients. Further studies may consider characteristics of diet in more detail to develop better intervention or management in terms of diet and health.

Citations

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Correlation of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with gut microbiota according to the dietary intake of Korean elementary school students
Tae-Hwan Jung, Hyo-Jeong Hwang, Kyoung-Sik Han, Regis Moreau
PLOS ONE.2022; 17(9): e0275520. CrossRef
Awareness and Practice of Sugar Reduction in School Foodservice and the Practice of Nutrition Education in Daegu
Suhyang Jang, Kilye Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(3): 167. CrossRef
Effect of Nutrition Education on Reduced Sugar Intake in Elementary School Students
Young-Mi Seo, Ok-Jin Park, Min-June Lee
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2021; 31(1): 14. CrossRef
Analysis of the consumer perception and related education effect on the reduction of sugar for elementary school students in Seoul and Gyeonggi-do
Ki Nam Kim, Jung Sug Lee, Jee-Seon Shim, Hae Kyung Chung, Hae Rang Chung, Moon-Jeong Chang
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2020; 53(3): 303. CrossRef

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[English]
Effect of Nutrition Education on Improving Dietary Attitudes, Food Habits and Food Frequency - Female in Twenties Shift Work in Gyeonggi Area: Seung Lim Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(1):55-64. Published online February 28, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.1.55

Abstract PDF PubReader

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of nutrition education on improving dietary attitudes, food habits and Food Frequency of 32 female shift workers by administering questionnaires. Dietary nutrient consumption data were obtained from the female shift workers by using 1 day 24-hr recall. The results were as follows: Score on 'Concerns about health (p < 0.05)' was significantly higher after-training. Dietary attitude (32.3 vs. 34.9, p < 0.01) and food habits (60.2 vs. 67.1, p < 0.01) were significantly higher after thetraining. Scores on 'Eating a lot of food that I want to eat is more important than nutrition (p < 0.01)', 'I have a tendency to use instant foods when I am busy (p < 0.01)', 'I am interested in information on nutrition and health (p < 0.01)' were significantly higher after the training. Scores on 'I have three meals a day (p < 0.001)', 'I have breakfast regularly (p < 0.01)', 'I take vegetables other than kimchi at every meal (p < 0.01)', 'I drink milk every day (p < 0.001)', 'I eat fruits every day (p < 0.01)', and 'I apply nutrition knowledge to daily life (p < 0.001)' were significantly higher after the training. Protein (p < 0.05), fiber (p < 0.05), vitamin C (p < 0.01), and calcium (p < 0.001) intakes were significantly higher after the training. These results showed that nutrition education had improved the dietary attitudes, food habits, and nutrient intakes. Therefore, we conclude that providing more systematic and appropriate nutrition education to shift workers during their tenure of office period is likely to improve dietary attitudes, food habits, and nutrient intakes.

Citations

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The Effect of Frequent Use of Convenience Food from Convenience Stores on the Diet Quality of Women’s University Students: Using the Nutrition Quotient for Korean Adults
Sun Hee Lee, Seung-Lim Lee
The Korean Journal of Community Living Science.2021; 32(4): 581. CrossRef
Study of the characteristics of dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education for sodium reduction according to the stages of behavioral change in sodium reduction of male adult subjects in Gwangju·Jeonnam regions
Young Ran Heo, Hyun Young Oh, Hee Kyong Ro
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(5): 472. CrossRef
Survey on Health-related Factors, Nutrition Knowledge and Food Habits of College Students in Wonju Area
Seung Lim Lee, Sun Hee Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2015; 20(2): 96. CrossRef
Effects of nutrition education on nutrition-related knowledge, dietary habits, and nutrient intakes of alcoholic patients
An Na Kim, Hyeon-Sook Lim
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2014; 47(4): 277. CrossRef
Health-related Factors and Nutritional Status in Shift-workers at Coffee Shops - Focused on Single Women in Twenties in Seoul -
Seung-Lim Lee, Soo-Jin Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2013; 18(5): 467. CrossRef

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[English]
Food Habits, Eating Behaviors and Food Frequency by Gender and among Seoul and Other Regions in Upper-Grade Elementary School Children: Kyung Hee Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2010;15(2):180-190. Published online April 30, 2010

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to investigate the differences in food habits, eating behaviors and food frequency by gender and regions in upper grade elementary school children in Korea. Subjects of this study were 1,211 children, 645 boys and 566 girls, attending 6 elementary schools (4th, 5th and 6th graders). 389 children lived in Seoul and 822 children lived in other regions. Mean height, weight and BMI of subjects were 142.4 cm, 38.7 kg and 18.8 kg/m2 respectively. 70.5% of the subjects had breakfast every day and 12.4% of the subjects skipped breakfast. There were significant differences between boys and girls in causes of skipping breakfast, overeating, meal volume, and duration of meals. Girls showed more desirable eating behavior than boys (p < 0.001). Scores for specific eating behaviors such as unbalanced diet and intake of meats and vegetables were better in girls (p < 0.001), and boys ate meals faster than girls (p > 0.001). There were significant differences between Seoul and other regions in eating behavior. Eating behavior scores of children in other regions were higher than in Seoul (p < 0.01). Children in Seoul had a higher frequency of watching television with meals. Frequency of fruits (p < 0.001), milk products (p < 0.01), and meats (p < 0.05) of children in Seoul were higher than other regions. Otherwise the frequency of simple sugar products of children in other regions was higher than Seoul (p < 0.001). Frequency of green vegetables was higher for girls than boys, and frequency of fast foods was higher for boys than girls. These results showed that in nutrition education programs designed to improve the nutritional health of elementary school children, we need to focus more on differences in the children's food habits and eating behaviors by gender and regions. In consideration of these differences, such educational programs need to have a different emphasis for each gender and regions to serve its specific needs.

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[English]
Developing Dish-based Food Frequency Questionnaire for the Epidemiology Study of Hypertension Among Korean: Mi Kyung Kim, Young Mi Yun, Youngok Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(5):701-712. Published online October 31, 2008

Abstract PDF: The purpose of the present study was aimed to identify dish items applicable in developing dish?based food frequency questionnaire (DFFQ) for a hypertension study of Koreans. The 24-hour recall data of 4,401 subjects aged 20~65 years from the 2001 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used for the analysis. Logistic regression model was used to identify the nutrient related with hypertension. Energy, fiber, sodium, calcium, carotene, vitamin B1 and vitamin C were associated with hypertension. Selection the top 30 dish items for these seven nutrients was performed based on their degree of contribution in supplying nutrients in terms of the cumulative percent contribution (cPC), as well as on their degree of explanation for between?person variation, in terms of the cumulative regression coefficient (cMRC). Rice supplied 43% of total energy consumption. Korean cabbage and radish kimchi were two major sources of sodium and it also covered the 27% of between person variation of sodium intake. Soybean paste soup and single item of orange?colored fruits supplied 43% of total vitamin C intake for Koreans and it covered the almost 79% of between person variation among the Korean population. Korean cabbage kimchi was the major source of fiber, calcium, sodium, carotene, and vitamin C for Koreans. In summary, the top 30 selected dish items supplying the 78% to 89% of the 7 nutrients. Those items also covered the 79% to 94% of between person variation of the 7 nutrients consumption. Therefore, the selected 30 dish items in each categories of nutrient could be applicable in developing dish based food frequency questionnaire for hypertension study.

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[English]
Dietary Habits, Food Frequency and Dietary Attitudes by Gender and Nutrition Knowledge Level in Upper-grade School Children: Mi Yong Yon, Young Hee Han, Tai Sun Hyun; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(3):307-322. Published online June 30, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was carried out to examine dietary habits, food frequency and dietary attitudes by gender and nutrition knowledge level in upper-grade school children. Subjects were 223 boys and 208 girls attending 13 elementary schools (5 th and 6 th graders). A self-administered questionnaire was developed to assess nutrition knowledge, dietary habits, food frequency, and dietary attitudes. Nutrition knowledge score assessed by 19 questions was significantly higher in girls than in boys. There were significant differences between boys and girls in several items in dietary habits such as enough breakfast time, dinner regularity, number of side dishes, eating speed, type of snack after dinner, and degree of saltiness of dishes. Girls consumed staple foods such as rice, noodles or bread more frequently, and consumed less frequently ramyun, fried foods, fast foods, and Chinese foods than boys. In addition, girls had more positive dietary attitudes in trying to reduce fast foods, Chinese foods, ramyun and fried foods. Also children in the high or moderate nutrition knowledge level groups had better dietary habits in frequency of meals, frequency of breakfast, enough breakfast time, dinner regularity, activity during the meal, number of side dishes, eating speed, type of snack after dinner, and better food choices by eating staple foods and vegetable side dishes, meats and beans more frequently, and fried foods, doughnuts/ cakes, Chinese foods less frequently, and had better dietary attitudes in breakfast, vegetables and fruit intake than children in the low nutrition knowledge level group. Our results showed that dietary habits, food frequency and dietary attitudes were different by gender and nutrition knowledge level. These results suggest that in developing nutrition education program for elementary school children, the differences between gender and nutrition knowledge level should be considered. Nutrition education in elementary schools may change dietary habits and dietary attitudes through increasing nutrition knowledge.

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[English]
The Comparative Study on Food Consumption Patterns, Dietary Behavior, and Nutrition Knowledge of Korean Professional Soccer Players and Non-athletic Males: Hye Kyeong Kim, Jong Sook Kwon, Chan Kim, Jun Ho Kim, Chul Hyun Kim, Kyung Min Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(2):164-175. Published online April 30, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was performed to compare food consumption patterns, dietary behavior, and nutrition knowledge between Korean professional soccer players and the non-athletic males. Data were collected from 53 soccer players working for Korean professional soccer clubs and 44 non-athletic males, using self-administered questionnaires. There were significant differences in food consumption frequency between two groups. Meats and eggs, fishes and shellfishes, sea weeds were consumed more frequently by the soccer players. The frequency scores of foods rich in iron, calcium, and protein were also higher in the soccer players compared with the non-athletes. Meanwhile, the consumption of alcohol was more frequent in the non-athletes. As for the cooking method, the soccer players showed higher preference for steaming/parboiling and consumed raw vegetables and fruits more frequently than the non-athletic males (p < 0.05). The average scores of soccer players on nutrition knowledge for basic nutrition and athletic nutrition were lower than the respective values of the non-athletic males. However, the soccer players showed better eating behaviors and dietary habits compared with non-athletic males (p < 0.001). They had well-balanced, regular diet and good habits for chronic disease prevention. No significant relationship could be observed with respect to nutrition knowledge and nutritional behavior. Moreover, the experience of getting nutrition information did not affect either nutrition knowledge score or nutritional habits score, except that for habits of chronic disease prevention in non-athletes. Therefore, it is suggested that more effective and practical nutrition education program be needed for promoting healthy eating habits and improving nutritional status in young males.

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[English]
A Study on Development and Validation of Food Frequency Questionnaire for Estimating Energy Intake of Women in Child-Bearing Age: Sun Kyung Ji, Hyung Sook Kim, Hay Mie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(1):111-124. Published online February 29, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to develop a computerized food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for assessing nutritional status of women of child-bearing age. Computerized food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that reflect intakes of energy, carbohydrate, fat and protein was developed for women of child-bearing age. This FFQ is composed of 61 foods or food groups containing 192 dish items. To estimate of energy intake easily, we have developed a computer program that can be viewed on a computer screen in an actual size of dish items. Nutrient intakes of the last three months by the FFQ was validated with comparing the result of a 3-day diet record through 92 college students aged from 20 to 30. The level of energy, carbohydrate and sodium of estimating by the FFQ method was significantly higher than the level of a 3-day diet records method (p < 0.01). Pearson's correlation coefficients between the two methods were 0.50 for carbohydrate (p < 0.01), 0.55 for energy (p < 0.01) and 0.56 for protein (p < 0.01). Spearman's correlation coefficients were 0.53 for carbohydrate (p < 0.01), 0.55 for energy (p < 0.01) and 0.52 for protein (p < 0.01). The percent of subject in the lowest quartile in a 3-day diet record belonged to the first and second lowest quartile in food frequency questionnaire is 78.2% in energy, 91.3% in carbohydrate, 78.2% in protein, 69.5% in fat. Also, the percent of subject in the highest quartile in a 3-day diet record belong to the first and second highest quartile in food frequency questionnaire is 78.3% in energy, 73.9% in carbohydrate, 82.6% in protein, and 73.9% in fat. On the whole, the result of this study seemed to be in good agreement with other studies. Therefore, the FFQ developed by this study is considered to be a reliable tool to assess nutrients and food intakes for women of child-bearing age.

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[English]
A Study on the Attitude of Soy Food and Estimated Dietary Isoflavone Intake among Korean Adolescents: Min June Lee, Min Jung Kim, Sung Hee Min, Sun Yoon; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(5):606-614. Published online October 31, 2004

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to investigate the attitude to various soy foods and to estimate dietary isoflavone intake among Korean adolescents. The survey was carried out by self-administered questionnaire with 800 middle and high school students residing in urban and rural areas and 714 questionnaires were collected: resulting in 89% response rate. The dietary isoflavone intake was estimated by food frequency questionnaire developed for rapid assessment of isoflavone intake. Soybean paste, soybean curd, soy milk, bean sprouts and dambuk were recognized as nutritious and healthy food in order. Dambuk got the lowest score in taste and flavor. Bean sprouts, soybean curd and soybean paste were recognized as familiar food in order. Stuffed rice in fried soybean curd got the highest score and Miso soup got the lowest in preference. More than 50% of the subjects consumed soybean paste stew/soup and soybean curd over twice per week and 12.3% of the subjects consumed soybean over once a day. The estimated daily intake of isoflavones ranged from 0 to 227 mg, and the mean daily isoflavone intake of the subjects was 28.1 mg (16.3 mg genistein and 12.0 mg daidzein) whereas the median value of isoflavone intake was 19.7 mg. There was statistically significant relationship among Kyung Gi Do, Chung cheung Do and Seoul residents in their intake of isoflavone. The highest monthly income group consumed isoflavone more than the other groups. These results suggest that Korean adolescent perceived the soybean dishes as high quality foods but they didn't take much because of difficulty to cook or less chance to eat. Nutrition education program is needed to enhance consuming soy foods for prevention of chronic diseases related to dietary isoflavone intake. More detailed information on easy cook method of soy food is also needed.

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[English]
Dietary Risk Factors Related to Bone Mineral Density in the Postmenopausal Women with Low Bone Mineral Density: Eun Joo Lee, Sook Mee Son; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(5):644-653. Published online October 31, 2004

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to determine the dietary and lifestyle factors related to bone the mineral density (BMD) of postmenopausal women with decreased BMD. The subjects (N = 163) were recruited from women who visited a orthopedic clinic for BMD check up. A trained dietition interviewed subjects individually to obtain data about dietary behavior, consumption frequency of foods known as main dietary source of calcium and potassium, and clinical symptoms. The risk factors were identified by correlation and multiple regression analysis of variables. The mean age of the subjects was 66.8 years. Most of them showed low levels of education and monthly income. The mean age of menarche and menopause were 17.2 and 48 year, respectively. The mean menopause duration was 18.7 year. Most of the consumption of calcium was centered to vegetable foods. Education level were positively correlated (r = 0.272, p < 0.05) with BMD whereas age, menarch age, menopause duration, number of children were negatively correlated (r = -0.355, r = -0.240, r = -0.283, r = -0.193, respectively, p < 0.05) with BMD. The consumption of soybean, radish were positively correlated (r = 0.187, r = 0.158, respectively, p < 0.05) with BMD. Potassium intake with rice showed significantly negative correlation with BMD (r = -0.189, p < 0.05), but calcium intake with brown seaweeds, bean sprouts were positively correlated (r = 0.247, r = 0.254 respectively, p < 0.05) with BMD. Protein intake with roasted pork was also positively correlated (r = 0.216, p < 0.05) with BMD. Multiple regression analysis showed that the most prominent negative predictor influencing the BMD was age. Minor negative factors influencing the BMI were age of menarche, potassium intake from rice. But the significantly positively factors influencing the BMD were consumption of radish and soybean intake, education, and protein intake with roasted pork. In conclusion brown seaweeds, radish or soybeans can be promoted as cheap foods replacing milk and milk products for menopausal women with low income.

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[English]
Supplement Dose and Health-Related Life Style of Vitamin-Mineral Supplement User among Korean Middle-Aged: Yoon Jung Kim, Ju Ae Mun, Hyesun Min; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(3):303-314. Published online June 30, 2004

Abstract PDF: We studied daily micronutrient intake from vitamin-mineral supplements, health-related life style, clinical case of diseases and food frequency of the Korean middle-aged (40 - 59 yr, n = 404) to compare the characteristics of non-user (n = 270) and user (n = 134) of vitamin-mineral supplements. Rate of supplement use of the middle-aged was 33.2% and there was significant difference in education level (p = 0.0084) and family income (p = 0.0476) of user and nonuser. Smoking habit (p = 0.0844) and drinking frequency (p = 0.0606) tended to be lower in a supplement user than a non-user. The medical history of a case was significantly higher in users (67.9%) than in non-users (44.4%) (p = 0.001), which suggests that medical history is one of the important motivations of supplement use. Supplement users had the medical history of digestive disease (34.1%), anemia (11.0%) and hypertension (9.9%) in order. Vitamin C was the most frequently supplemented nutrient (81.3%) among vitamin-mineral supplement, and the next orders were vitamins E (73.1%), B2 (68.7%) and B6 (60.4%). Mean intakes of vitamin B1, iron, selenium, vitamin E, and vitamin C from supplement was 4,260%, 4,030%, 1,660% and 1,330% of RDA, respectively. The supplement users tended to consume most food items including milk & milk products (p < 0.01), rice (p < 0.01), grains (p < 0.05) and cookies (p < 0.01) less frequently than non-users. Conclusively, nutrient intake of vitamin B1, iron, selenium, vitamin E, and vitamin C from supplement was excessively high compared to RDA. We suggest that the toxic effect of excessive supplementation should be informed to supplement user and nutritional education should be focused on the optimal supplement dose.

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[English]
Validation and Calibration of Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire: With Participants of the Korean Health and Genome Study: Younjhin Ahn, Ji Eun Lee, Nam Han Cho, Chol Shin, Chan Park, Berm Seok Oh, Kuchan Kimm; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(2):173-182. Published online April 30, 2004

Abstract PDF: We carried out a validation-calibration study of the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that we had previously developed for a community-based cohort of the Korean Genome and Health Study of the Korea National Genome Research Institute. We have collected a total of 254 3-day diet records (DRs) from 400 subjects, 200 each randomly selected from the two study cohorts of Ansung and Ansan. FFQ was administered at the time of cohort recruitment in 2001, and DRs were collected during a two month period from January through February of 2002. The mean age was 52.2 years. Farming for men and housewife for women were the most common occupations. The majority of the subjects had undergone 6~12 years of education. The general characteristics including demographic and other data were not different from the total cohort subjects. Absolute levels of consumed nutrients including total energy (energy), protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron, retinol, carotene, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C were compared. The average of energy intake was not significantly different between the data collected by the 2 methods. However, consumptions of protein and fat were higher in data of DRs, whereas that of carbohydrate was higher in FFQ data. Significant correlation of each nutrient consumption between the data sets was observed (p <0.05) except in the case of iron, while the average correlation coefficient between them was 0.22 ranging from 0.33 for energy to 0.11 for iron. The results of cross classification by quantile for exact classification ranged from 25.2% (carotene) to 35.0% (phosphorus), and from 64.6% (vitamin A) to 76.4% (retinol) for adjacent classification. The proportion of completely opposite classification was 8.1% in average. Calibration slope was estimated by regression and calibration parameters ranged from 0.025 for carotene to 0.423 for niacin. We conclude that the FFQ we have developed is an appropriate tool for assessing the nutrient intakes as ranking exposures in epidemiology studies in view that amounts of consumed nutrients obtained by FFQ were similar to those collected by DRs, that correlations between consumed nutrients collected by these methods were significant, and that classification results were relatively fair. The correlation coefficients, however, were lower than expected, which may be mainly due to the survey season. In fact, any short-term dietary survey cannot accurately reflect the overall dietary intakes that change heavily depending on seasons. Further studies including the analysis of chemical indices would be helpful for the studies of causal relationship between the diet and disease.

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[English]
The Influence of Health-Related Habits on Nutrient Intake and Food Frequency of Middle-Aged Subjects in Seoul: Mee Sook Lee, Sung Ae Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(5):699-707. Published online October 31, 2003

Abstract PDF: This study examined the effectiveness of two commonly used dietary assessment methods (the 24-hour recall and the food frequency questionnaire) in the epidemiological investigations of health-related habits and degenerative diseases. This cross sectional project in the Seoul area was conducted for the purpose of establishing cohort subjects and collecting reliable nutrient intake data for a further large-scale cross sectional study. The subjects were 91 volunteers from the Seoul area with a mean age of 53.5 +/- 9.6 for the males and 52.2 +/- 8.9 for the females. The subjects had a rela-tively high educational background, were from high socioeconomic levels, and were greatly concerned about healthrelated life styles. There was a significantly negative correlation between their smoking and their nutrient intake. Their drinking habits, their self-estimated health status and their concern or stress about being healthy did not have any influence on their nutrient intakes. Skipping meals was the most undesirable dietary habit influencing their nutrient intakes, and the next was their irregularity of eating meals. The subjects who liked legumes and fish had higher intakes of iron and niacin and those who liked milk and dairy products had higher intakes of calcium, vitamin B2 and fat. The subjects who considered themselves not to be healthy consumed higher amounts of fish and shell-fish, and those who considered themselves to be healthy consumed higher amounts of vegetables. The smokers consumed less fruits than non-smokers, but there was no correlation between their drinking and consumption of the food groups. There was no correlation between their food consumption frequency and their skipping meals or meal irregularity. There were positive correlations between their food likes and food consumption frequency for foods such as meat, milk and dairy products, seaweeds and fruits. Therefore, their smoking, skipping meals and meal irregularity appeared to greatly influence their nutrient intakes. Significant correlations were found between their health-related habits and their food group preferences and food frequencies. This implies that simple surveying methods using criteria such as smoking, skipping meals and meal irregularity, food group preferences and eating frequencies can be used as useful tools in the assessment of nutritional statuses.

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[English]
Evaluating Nutrient Intakes of Korean Elderly Using Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire: Hae Jeung Lee, Seon Joo Park, Jung Hee Kim, Cho Il Kim, Kyung Ja Chang, Kyeong Sook Yim, Kyungwon Kim, Haymie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(3):311-318. Published online June 30, 2003

Abstract PDF: The aim of this study was to assess the nutrient intakes of the elderly subjects in Korea. Dietary assessment was carried out using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SQFFQ) developed by our laboratory, which included 98 commonly consumed food items selected from 1998 National Health and Nutritional Survey for Korean population. Subjects (n = 2,660) aged 50yr and over were recruited in Seoul, 6 metropolitan cities, and 8 mid-size cities. Calcium and riboflavin intakes of the elderly subjects aged 65 yr and over (n = 1,974) were much lower compared with Korean RDA. Nutrient intakes of the three age group (50-64 yr, 65-74 yr, 75 yr and over) were decreased as age increased in male and female elderly. Nutrient intakes of male elderly, 75 yr and over, were significantly decreased while in female elderly nutrient intakes were gradually decreased as age increased. Over 30% of the elderly subjects did not meet 75% RDA for calcium, iron, vitamin A, and riboflavin. The proportion of the elderly subjects whose intakes were below 75% RDA was much higher than the elderly whose intakes were above 125% RDA, especially among the elderly aged 75 yr and over. This study revealed that the Korean elderly had inadequate intakes for many nutrients. This will cause a serious nutritional problem for the elderly.

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[English]
The Development and Validation of a Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess Diets of Korean Adolescents: Kyeong Sook Yim, Tae Young Lee, Hye Soon Park; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(2):149-159. Published online April 30, 2003

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the validity of a food frequency questionnaire for Korean adolescents (FFQ-A) which could be used in clinical and epidemiological studies of the lifestyle and health of young people. The FFQ-A was designed to reflect the eating pattern of Korean adolescents, and was based on the 1998 Korean National Health and Nutrition Survey Reports. The FFQ-A had 25 food categories. A total of 125 subjects (aged 13 to 15 years) was recruited from a randomly chosen middle school in a middle-income neighborhood in Anyang, South Korea. Each subject completed a FFQ-A, as well as a three-day dietary record. Data from 117 subjects (boys 47, girls 70) was used in the final analyses. Data on the nutrients was analyzed to estimate the Pearson correlations, Spearman rank-order correlations and agreement with categories. The validity of the FFQ-A was assessed relative to a three-day dietary record. The Pearson correlation coefficients for all the subjects were 0.94, 0.87, 0.77, 0.79, 0.49 and 0.68 for energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium, and iron, respectively. Similarly the Spearman rank-order correlation coefficients were 0.94, 0.85, 0.79, 0.81, 0.46, and 0.77 for energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium and iron, respectively. The Kappa values for energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium, and iron were 0.88, 0.67, 0.63, 0.67, 0.26, and 0.59, respectively. The percentage for misclassification of the lowest quartile into the highest quartile or vice versa ranged from 0% (energy, carbohydrate, or fat) to 16.7% (Vitamin C). Therefore the FFQ-A has a reasonable ability to assess the energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat intakes as estimated from a three-day dietary record of Korean adolescents.

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[English]
Software for Nutritional Assessment Using a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire and the 24-hour Recall Method: Sang Ah Lee, Kyoungsin Lee, Hyung Sook Kim, Hae Jeung Lee, Haymie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(4):548-558. Published online August 31, 2002

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to develop a computer software program for nutritional assessment using a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (SQFFQs) and the 24-hour Recall Method. The software for the SQFFQ was divided into input, output, and database. For dietary analyses, recipe and food databases were used. The recipe database included 25 items and the food database was divided into 18 food groups. The food database was composed of 19 general nutrient items, 33 fatty acids, and 18 amino acids. The software developed in this study can be summarized as follows: 1) input items related to the individual's ages information, lifestyle, biological values, and dietary habits; 2) individualized data in percent of the Korean RDA, the energy ratios of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the ratio of animal to plant source intakes, and the distribution of food group intakes; 3) Statistical data on the individual's information, lifestyle, biological values, and dietary intakes including the frequency of intake of cooked foods, the amounts of food, and the number of food groups, and nutrients. In the 24-hour Recall Method, the input and output consisted of the individual's information and cooked dish intakes. The individual's report included the amounts of nutrient intake according to number of meal and days, in comparison to the Korean RDA, the energy ratio for carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the ratio of animal to plant source intakes, and the distribution of food group intakes. The statistical report presented the number of food groups and foods, and the nutrient intakes. To evaluate the validity of the SQFFQ, the Spearman Rank Order Correlation and kappa values were used. As a result, correlation coefficients comparing the 24-hour Recall Method appeared to be more than 0.5, except for vitamin B1, B2, niacin, and vitamin E. The kappa values for energy and carbohydrate intakes were both 0.7, and protein, fat, vitamin C, folate, Ca, and iron intakes ranged from 0.3 to 0.7.

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[English]
A Study on Validity of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for Korean Adults: Jee Seon Shim, Kyung Won Oh, Il Suh, Mi Yang Kim, Chun Young Sohn, Eun Joo Lee, Chung Mo Nam; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(4):484-494. Published online August 31, 2002

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to validate the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire that was developed to assess the intakes of fatty acids, as well as energy, carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals and vitamins in Korean adults. The validity of the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire was tested on 78 subjects (31 men, 47 women) aged 34 to 66 years. The semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire included 93 food items and was validated on two 3-day dietary records. The mean intakes and the Spearman Correlation Coefficients between the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire and the two 3-day dietary records were analyzed for each nutrient and food group level. The mean nutrient intakes obtained from the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire were estimated to be greater than those of the two 3-day dietary records. The Spearman Correlation Coefficients between the energy-adjusted nutrient intakes from the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire and the two 3-day dietary records ranged from 0.24 for polyunsaturated fatty acids to 0.55 for fat in men and from 0.29 for polyunsaturated fatty acids to 0.55 for saturated fatty acids in women, respectively. The Spearman Correlation Coefficients for food intake ranged from 0.11 for teas and beverages to 0.58 for grains and their products in men, -0.04 for potatoes and starches to 0.73 for milk and dairy products in women. Foods consumed regularly had lower intra-person variation and tended to have higher observed correlation coefficients. These results indicate that the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire is a useful tool for estimating nutrient intakes, particularly of total fat and saturated fatty acid intakes.

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[English]
Development and Validation of a Computerized Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire Program for Evaluating the Nutritional Status of the Korean Elderly: Hae Jeung Lee, Seon Joo Park, Jung Hee Kim, Cho Il Kim, Kyung Ja Chang, Kyeong Sook Yim, Kyung Won Kim, Hay Mie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(2):277-285. Published online April 30, 2002

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to develop a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SQ-FFQ) for subjects aged 50yr and over and to evaluate the validity of this SQ-FFQ. Dietary intake was assessed using SQ-FFQ that included 98 commonly consumed flood items selected from the results of the Korean Health and Nutritional Survey, 1998. Subjects (n = 2,660) aged 50yr and over were recruited from 7 metropolitan cities and 8 small cities. Each subject was interviewed using this SQ-FFQ developed in our laboratory and 24hr-recall method. Excluding incomplete data, Data from 1,149 subjects were used in this validity study. The nutrient intakes assessed by this SQ-FFQ were validated by comparing with the results from 1 day 24-hour recalls. Pearson's correlation coefficients between two methods were 0.71, 0.64, 0.53, and 0.43 for energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat, respectively for all subjects. Spearman's correlation coefficients were higher than those of Pearson's correlation coefficients. Kappa values for energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat were 0.79, 0.72, 0.70, and 0.64, respectively. The percentage for misclassification of the lowest quartile into the highest quartile or vice versa was 1.25-1.39% for all nutrients. Therefore, this SQ-FFQ seems to be useful in assessing the nutritional status of the middle-aged and elderly subjects in Korea.

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[English]
Development of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for Pre-school Children in Korea: Young Lim, Se Young Oh; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(1):58-66. Published online February 28, 2002

Abstract PDF: The purpose of the study was to develop and evaluate the reliability of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SFFQ) intended to measure mainly nutrient intake (energy, protein, fat, calcium and iron) related to growth in pre-schoolers in Korea. Based on foods with up to 90 cumulative percent contribution of the 5 nutrients, we developed a SFFQ for 86 foods. In order to evaluate the reliability of both nutrient and food intakes, caregivers of a sample of 101 children aged 4 to 6 years completed the SFFQ repeatedly at 3 month intervals. There were small differences in the nutrient intakes assessed by the SFFQ ranging from 0.55% to 9.91%. There were no significant differences in nutrient values calculated from the repeat questionnaires, except in the case of niacin and vitamin C. The Pearson correlation coefficients of most of the nutrients ranged form 0.54 to 0.75 (mean = 0.66). When energy intake was adjusted, there was approximately a 0.2 decrease in the correlation coefficient of most nutrients, due to the high correlation of energy intake with other nutrients (r=0.7-0.9). The amount of food intake differed by 0.1 to 66.4% (mean = 17.5%), depending on the food item. Out of 86 foods, 74 foods (86%) showed less than a 30% difference in intake and 30 foods (35%) showed less than a 10% difference. Only 6 (7%) out of the 86 foods presented statistically significant differences in intake. The Spearman correlation coefficients of most food intakes assessed repeatedly by the SFFQ ranged from 0.4 to 0.7. Reproducibility of the nutrient and food intakes found in this study was better or similar to those found in cases of Korean adults. Therefore, the SFFQ developed in the present study can be a useful tool to assess the dietary intake of pre-schoolers in Korea.

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[English]
Factors Influencing Food Consumption by Food Frequency Qustionnaire of University Students in Taejon: Mee Sook Lee, Joung Won Lee, Mee Kyung Woo; Korean J Community Nutr 2001;6(2):172-181. Published online May 31, 2001

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study is to analyze the foods which 424(male 171, female 253) university students surveyed consumed frequently and to evaluate and the factors affecting their food consumption patterns. The survey was conducted at the beginning of nutrition courses each semester, March and September, 1998, with the questionnaire composed of general information, food, drinking and smoking habits, nutrition knowledge/attitude and food frequency questionnaire. The rates of alcohol drinking in male and female students were 89.2% and 78.1% respectively, and the rates of smoking were 68.1% and 1.6% in males and female. The nutrition knowledge score was higher in females than in males, but the nutrition attitude score was not significantly different between the male and female groups. The foods frequently consumed among students were cooked rice(14.3/week), kimchi(11.1/week), coffee(5.7/week), vegetables in soup, jjigae and jorim(3.5/week), carbonated beverages(3.3/week), cooked mixed rice(3.2/week). Ramyun and chocolate candies biscuits were frequently consumed, too. There were several factors influencing food consumption patterns. These were gender, regularity of mealtimes, the status of alcohol drinking and smoking, residence type and the levels of nutrition knowledge and attitude. Males ate more frequently cooked rice, coffee, carbonated beverages, ramyun, functional beverages and ham sausage, while females ate more frequently cooked mixed rice and fruits. Those who had the habits of irregular mealtimes seemed to eat more soft drinks, instant foods and snacks. These trends were also found in the alcohol drinking and smoking groups. High level groups for nutrition knowledge of attitude score chose raw yellow green and green vegetables, cooked mixed rice, soybeans and seaweeds more frequently than the other groups. On the other hand, low level groups for nutrition knowledge or attitude score were apt to eat carbonated beverages and ramyun more frequently. Therefore, more attention should be taken to males, having habits of irregular mealtimes, alcohol drinking and smoking, and low level groups for nutrition knowledge or attitude score so as to improve their health.

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[English]
Comparisons of Nutrients Intake of Normocholesterolemia and Hypercholesterolemia in the Postmenopausal Women: Sangyeon Kim, Kyungah Jung, Yoon Jung Choi, Seok Kie Lee, Yukyung Chang; Korean J Community Nutr 2000;5(3):461-474. Published online September 30, 2000

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to explore the difference in nutrient intakes between normocholesterolemia and hypercholesterolemia. The subjects were classified as normocholesterolemia and hypercholesterolemia based on The Guideline for Korean Hyperlipidemia. A semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire was used to measure the dietary intakes of the subjects. The results obtained are summarized as follows. Intakes of nutrients such as energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, minerals, and antioxidant vitamins were not significantly different between the normocholesterolemia group and hypercholesterolemia group. However, antioxidant vitamins and folate intakes in the hypercholesterolemia group tended to be lower than those in the normocholesterolmia group. Intakes of vitamin A, vitamin E, and Ca in normocholesterolemia was much less than the RDA for those nutrients in normocholesterolemia. Cholesterol intake in the hypercholesterolemia group was significantly higher than that in the normochoesterolemia group. However, mean cholesterol intake(240 mg/day) of the hypercholesterolemia group was much less than that of Americans whose cholesterol intake was 400 - 500 me/day. Fatty acid intakes were not significantly different between normocholesterolemia and hypercholesterolemia groups but the hypercholesterolemia group tended to consume omega3 fatty acids less than the normocholesterolemia group. Out data indicate that cholesterol intake is man important determinant of serum cholesterol levels in postmenopausal women. The results of this study provide information that is important in designing appropriate dietary guidelines for hypercholesterolemia in postmenopausal women.

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[English]
A Study of the Dietary Intake Status and One Portion Size of Commonly Consumed Food and Dishes in Korean Elderly Women: Sang yeon Kim, Kyungah Jung, Bokyung Lee, Yukyung Chang; Korean J Community Nutr 1997;2(4):578-592. Published online October 31, 1997

Abstract PDF: The use of semiquantitative food frequency to estimate dietary intake has become widespread in nutritional epidemiologic studies. It had been suggested that knowledge about a person's usual portion size of each meal in addition to consumption frequency will improve the accuracy of this method. This study was performed to investigate the dietary intake status(nutrient, food, and dish intake) and one portion size of commonly consumed food and dishes to develop a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire that will be used to expore the relationship between the incidence of cardiovascular disease and diet in Korean women after menopause. Intake of food or dish in 123 elderly women were measured by 3-day food records in March to May, 1996. The results obtained in this study were summarized as follow : 1) Calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin E intakes were less adequate than Recommended dietary allowances(RDA). 2) The subjects who consumed more than 20% of the energy from fat were 35% and the subjects consumed dietary cholesterol more than 300mg were 18%. 3) The most frequently consumed foods or dishes by the subjects were Korean cabbage kimchi

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[English]
The Development and Evaluation of a Simple Semi-quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess the Dietary Intake of Adults in Large Cities: Hee Ja Lee, Haeng Shin Lee, Myung Ju Ha, Seung Hee Kye, Choi Il Kim, Choong Won Lee, Jin Sook Yoon; Korean J Community Nutr 1997;2(3):349-365. Published online August 31, 1997

Abstract PDF: Using data obtained from 1,473 adults aged 18-68 yrs, residing in large cities and by use of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, we assessed the relative importance of various foods as indicators of both the amount and the variability of selected nutrient intake to develop a simple food frequency questionnaire. Since Cronbach's alpha value of the questionnaire including 78 food items was 0.76, the reliability of this questionnaire was acceptable. A large fraction of the variability of nutrient intake in this population could be explained by the small number of food items. The estimation of dietary nutrient intake such as total calories or protein content, which are derived from almost all foods, will require more food items with nutrients such as calcium or vitamin A, which are concentrated in a few food items. A dietary history ascertaining the intake of as few as 5-19 food items mighted be all needed in order to determent the association between disease outcome and the intake of a single nutrient. There was certainly a high level of agreement with nutrient intake by the sbujects who were cross-classified by quartiles of nutrient indices based on all the food items(78) and by quartiles of nutrient indices based on food items selected by stepwise multiple regression for selected nutrients. The data provided further evidence that useful information on dietary intake over an extended period can be obtained by a simple and relatively inexpensive food frequency questionnaire.

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