1농촌진흥청 국립농업과학원 농식품자원부 연구원
2전북대학교 식품영양학과∙인간생활과학연구소 교수
1Researcher, Department of Agro-Food Resources, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, Korea
2Professor, Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition, Research Institute of Human Ecology, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, Korea
© 2024 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
None.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey at http://knhanes.kdca.go.kr.
Variable | < 15% | 15%–30% | > 30% | Total | χ2 | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FPG (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 21.245 | 0.005 |
Diabetes (> 100) | 10.3 | 7.7 | 7.6 | 8.6 | ||
Prediabetes (70–100) | 33.4 | 31.3 | 30.5 | 32.0 | ||
Normal (< 70) | 56.4 | 61.0 | 61.9 | 59.4 | ||
HbA1c (%) | (n = 2,700) | (n = 3,690) | (n = 699) | (n = 7,089) | 22.154 | 0.003 |
Diabetes (≥ 6.5) | 11.3 | 8.1 | 7.7 | 9.2 | ||
Prediabetes (5.7–6.4) | 29.8 | 29.9 | 29.1 | 29.8 | ||
Normal (< 5.7) | 58.9 | 62.0 | 63.3 | 61.0 | ||
BUN (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 1.355 | 0.870 |
High (> 22) | 8.0 | 8.5 | 7.7 | 8.2 | ||
Normal (4–22) | 92.0 | 91.5 | 92.3 | 91.7 | ||
Creatinine (mg/dL)1) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 4.997 | 0.376 |
High (> 1.2/1.1) | 2.4 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 2.0 | ||
Normal (0.6–1.2/0.5–1.1) | 96.5 | 97.2 | 97.9 | 97.0 | ||
Low (< 0.6/0.5) | 1.2 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1.0 | ||
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 34.835 | < 0.001 |
Very high (≥ 500) | 2.4 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 2.2 | ||
High (200–499) | 20.8 | 15.6 | 16.0 | 17.5 | ||
Borderline (150–199) | 14.4 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 14.3 | ||
Normal (< 150) | 62.4 | 68.1 | 68.3 | 66.1 | ||
Total-cholesterol (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 5.373 | 0.417 |
High (≥ 240) | 12.5 | 13.0 | 12.9 | 12.8 | ||
Borderline (200–239) | 33.7 | 36.0 | 33.8 | 34.9 | ||
Normal (< 200) | 53.8 | 51.0 | 53.3 | 52.3 | ||
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,690) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,101) | 11.781 | 0.059 |
High (≥ 60) | 20.0 | 21.9 | 23.6 | 21.4 | ||
Borderline (40–59) | 59.5 | 60.3 | 58.7 | 59.9 | ||
Low (< 40) | 20.6 | 17.8 | 17.8 | 18.8 | ||
Hemoglobin (g/dL)1) | (n = 2,700) | (n = 3,690) | (n = 699) | (n = 7,089) | 3.672 | 0.591 |
High (> 17.5/16) | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.0 | ||
Normal (13.5–17.5/12–16) | 91.2 | 89.8 | 90.7 | 90.4 | ||
Low (< 13.5/12) | 8.0 | 9.0 | 8.2 | 8.6 |
%.
All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population.
1)The reference values for each variable are presented separately for males and females.
FPG, fasting plasma glucose; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; HDL-cholesterol, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol.
%.
All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population.
EER, estimated energy requirement; EAR, estimated average requirement; RNI, recommended nutrition intake; AI, adequate intake; UL, tolerable upper intake level; CDRR, chronic disease risk reduction intake.
Variable | < 15% (n = 2,782) | 15%–30% (n = 3,773) | > 30% (n = 719) | P |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dyslipidemia | 1.03 (0.89–1.20)1,2) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.99 (0.77–1.26) | 0.908 |
Stroke | 1.50 (0.90–2.40) | 1.00 | 1.62 (0.74–3.57) | 0.222 |
Myocardial infarction/angina | 1.49 (0.96–2.33) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.44–2.20) | 0.182 |
Hypertension | 1.15 (0.98–1.34) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.78–1.32) | 0.231 |
Diabetes | 1.43 (1.16–1.76) | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.63–1.42) | 0.002 |
Cancer | 1.25 (0.72–2.15) | 1.00 | 0.37 (0.10–1.31) | 0.117 |
Cirrhosis | 3.62 (1.35–9.73) | 1.00 | 5.83 (1.24–27.39) | 0.027 |
Metabolic syndrome | 1.28 (1.12–1.45) | 1.00 | 1.13 (0.91–1.41) | 0.001 |
Obesity | 0.97 (0.86–1.10) | 1.00 | 1.19 (0.98–1.44) | 0.156 |
Variable | < 15% | 15%–30% | > 30% | Total | χ2 | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 194.865 | < 0.001 |
40–49 | 34.3 | 47.0 | 56.6 | 43.3 | ||
50–59 | 46.7 | 41.6 | 35.4 | 42.8 | ||
60–64 | 19.0 | 11.5 | 8.0 | 13.8 | ||
Sex | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 9.176 | 0.030 |
Male | 51.1 | 49.2 | 44.8 | 49.4 | ||
Female | 48.9 | 50.8 | 55.2 | 50.6 | ||
Personal income | (n = 2,779) | (n = 3,765) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,263) | 46.856 | < 0.001 |
Low | 28.3 | 21.6 | 22.3 | 24.1 | ||
Middle-low | 24.7 | 25.3 | 24.5 | 25.0 | ||
Middle-high | 24.3 | 26.7 | 25.1 | 25.7 | ||
High | 22.7 | 26.5 | 28.2 | 25.3 | ||
Residence region | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 73.814 | < 0.001 |
Urban | 81.6 | 88.6 | 89.7 | 86.2 | ||
Rural | 18.4 | 11.4 | 10.3 | 13.8 | ||
Education level | (n = 2,647) | (n = 3,606) | (n = 687) | (n = 6,940) | 374.793 | < 0.001 |
≤ Elementary | 16.1 | 6.5 | 4.0 | 9.7 | ||
Middle | 15.3 | 8.6 | 8.2 | 11.0 | ||
High | 38.6 | 38.6 | 32.0 | 37.9 | ||
≥ College | 30.0 | 46.3 | 55.8 | 41.3 | ||
Marital status | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 2.597 | 0.428 |
Married | 94.2 | 95.0 | 94.0 | 94.6 | ||
Unmarried | 5.8 | 5.0 | 6.0 | 5.4 |
Variable | < 15% | 15%–30% | > 30% | Total | χ2 | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Walking | (n = 2,646) | (n = 3,605) | (n = 689) | (n = 6,940) | 31.822 | < 0.001 |
Everyday | 24.4 | 26.1 | 29.6 | 25.8 | ||
4–6 (days/week) | 23.7 | 26.7 | 25.2 | 25.5 | ||
1–3 (days/week) | 30.8 | 30.2 | 31.0 | 30.5 | ||
Never | 21.1 | 17.0 | 14.2 | 18.2 | ||
Alcohol intake (glass) | (n = 2,755) | (n = 3,743) | (n = 716) | (n = 7,214) | 36.006 | < 0.001 |
0 | 23.5 | 21.3 | 20.0 | 22.0 | ||
1–2 | 25.0 | 28.2 | 31.5 | 27.4 | ||
3–6 | 27.1 | 30.4 | 26.8 | 28.9 | ||
≥ 7 | 24.4 | 20.0 | 21.6 | 21.8 | ||
Smoking | (n = 2,753) | (n = 3,740) | (n = 716) | (n = 7,209) | 14.914 | 0.042 |
Nonsmoker | 54.6 | 56.9 | 61.0 | 56.5 | ||
Ex-smoker | 21.5 | 22.1 | 20.3 | 21.7 | ||
Current smoker | 23.9 | 21.0 | 18.6 | 21.8 | ||
Subjective health perception | (n = 2,655) | (n = 3,616) | (n = 690) | (n = 6,961) | 50.070 | < 0.001 |
Good | 24.9 | 30.8 | 32.2 | 28.8 | ||
Normal | 55.9 | 54.8 | 55.3 | 55.2 | ||
Bad | 19.3 | 14.4 | 12.5 | 16.0 |
Variable | < 15% | 15%–30% | > 30% | Total | χ2 | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FPG (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 21.245 | 0.005 |
Diabetes (> 100) | 10.3 | 7.7 | 7.6 | 8.6 | ||
Prediabetes (70–100) | 33.4 | 31.3 | 30.5 | 32.0 | ||
Normal (< 70) | 56.4 | 61.0 | 61.9 | 59.4 | ||
HbA1c (%) | (n = 2,700) | (n = 3,690) | (n = 699) | (n = 7,089) | 22.154 | 0.003 |
Diabetes (≥ 6.5) | 11.3 | 8.1 | 7.7 | 9.2 | ||
Prediabetes (5.7–6.4) | 29.8 | 29.9 | 29.1 | 29.8 | ||
Normal (< 5.7) | 58.9 | 62.0 | 63.3 | 61.0 | ||
BUN (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 1.355 | 0.870 |
High (> 22) | 8.0 | 8.5 | 7.7 | 8.2 | ||
Normal (4–22) | 92.0 | 91.5 | 92.3 | 91.7 | ||
Creatinine (mg/dL) |
(n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 4.997 | 0.376 |
High (> 1.2/1.1) | 2.4 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 2.0 | ||
Normal (0.6–1.2/0.5–1.1) | 96.5 | 97.2 | 97.9 | 97.0 | ||
Low (< 0.6/0.5) | 1.2 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1.0 | ||
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 34.835 | < 0.001 |
Very high (≥ 500) | 2.4 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 2.2 | ||
High (200–499) | 20.8 | 15.6 | 16.0 | 17.5 | ||
Borderline (150–199) | 14.4 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 14.3 | ||
Normal (< 150) | 62.4 | 68.1 | 68.3 | 66.1 | ||
Total-cholesterol (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,693) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,104) | 5.373 | 0.417 |
High (≥ 240) | 12.5 | 13.0 | 12.9 | 12.8 | ||
Borderline (200–239) | 33.7 | 36.0 | 33.8 | 34.9 | ||
Normal (< 200) | 53.8 | 51.0 | 53.3 | 52.3 | ||
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | (n = 2,709) | (n = 3,690) | (n = 702) | (n = 7,101) | 11.781 | 0.059 |
High (≥ 60) | 20.0 | 21.9 | 23.6 | 21.4 | ||
Borderline (40–59) | 59.5 | 60.3 | 58.7 | 59.9 | ||
Low (< 40) | 20.6 | 17.8 | 17.8 | 18.8 | ||
Hemoglobin (g/dL) |
(n = 2,700) | (n = 3,690) | (n = 699) | (n = 7,089) | 3.672 | 0.591 |
High (> 17.5/16) | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.0 | ||
Normal (13.5–17.5/12–16) | 91.2 | 89.8 | 90.7 | 90.4 | ||
Low (< 13.5/12) | 8.0 | 9.0 | 8.2 | 8.6 |
Variable | < 15% | 15%–30% | > 30% | Total | χ2 | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 52.267 | < 0.001 |
< EER | 61.1 | 56.4 | 46.4 | 57.1 | ||
≥ EER | 38.9 | 43.6 | 53.6 | 42.9 | ||
Carbohydrate | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 72.487 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 0.5 | 0.7 | 3.1 | 0.9 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 2.7 | 2.3 | 5.7 | 2.8 | ||
≥ RNI | 96.8 | 97.0 | 91.2 | 96.3 | ||
Protein | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 426.653 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 31.3 | 14.5 | 9.5 | 20.1 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 17.9 | 14.8 | 9.1 | 15.4 | ||
≥ RNI | 50.9 | 70.7 | 81.4 | 64.5 | ||
Fiber | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 11.648 | 0.012 |
< AI | 51.1 | 48.5 | 54.8 | 50.0 | ||
≥ AI | 48.9 | 51.5 | 45.2 | 50.0 | ||
Vitamin A | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 249.593 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 85.2 | 71.7 | 63.4 | 75.7 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 8.9 | 15.5 | 17.8 | 13.3 | ||
≥ RNI and < UL | 5.9 | 12.5 | 17.5 | 10.6 | ||
≥ UL | 0.0 | 0.3 | 1.3 | 0.3 | ||
Thiamin | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 64.254 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 33.0 | 25.8 | 27.7 | 28.6 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 17.8 | 15.4 | 14.3 | 16.1 | ||
≥ RNI | 49.2 | 58.8 | 58.0 | 55.2 | ||
Riboflavin | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 900.708 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 50.9 | 21.7 | 11.2 | 31.2 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 12.4 | 10.3 | 6.3 | 10.7 | ||
≥ RNI | 36.7 | 68.0 | 82.5 | 58.1 | ||
Niacin | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 297.528 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 54.2 | 38.3 | 29.2 | 43.2 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 21.2 | 23.8 | 19.6 | 22.5 | ||
≥ RNI and < UL | 23.7 | 36.5 | 47.7 | 32.9 | ||
≥ UL | 0.9 | 1.4 | 3.6 | 1.4 | ||
Folate | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 52.370 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 53.5 | 45.7 | 50.4 | 49.0 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 18.3 | 18.2 | 17.9 | 18.2 | ||
≥ RNI and < UL | 27.6 | 35.6 | 31.3 | 32.3 | ||
≥ UL | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | ||
Vitamin C | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 14.133 | 0.033 |
< EAR | 74.0 | 70.2 | 70.3 | 71.6 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 9.7 | 12.1 | 11.1 | 11.1 | ||
≥ RNI | 16.3 | 17.7 | 18.6 | 17.3 | ||
Ca | (n = 2,768) | (n = 3,710) | (n = 696) | (n = 7,174) | 254.991 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 78.5 | 60.3 | 60.0 | 66.9 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 10.7 | 18.1 | 19.7 | 15.5 | ||
≥ RNI and < UL | 10.5 | 21.2 | 19.9 | 17.1 | ||
≥ UL | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | ||
P | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 242.030 | < 0.001 |
< EAR | 16.9 | 7.2 | 4.6 | 10.5 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 11.3 | 7.6 | 6.1 | 8.8 | ||
≥ RNI | 71.8 | 85.3 | 89.2 | 80.7 | ||
Fe | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 31.844 | 0.002 |
< EAR | 28.0 | 22.9 | 22.5 | 24.8 | ||
≥ EAR and < RNI | 15.8 | 15.2 | 14.6 | 15.4 | ||
≥ RNI and < UL | 55.7 | 61.6 | 62.5 | 59.6 | ||
≥ UL | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | ||
K | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 24.960 | < 0.001 |
< AI | 73.5 | 68.3 | 66.4 | 70.0 | ||
≥ AI | 26.5 | 31.7 | 33.6 | 30.0 | ||
Na | (n = 2,782) | (n = 3,773) | (n = 719) | (n = 7,274) | 69.401 | < 0.001 |
< AI | 14.3 | 10.0 | 11.6 | 11.7 | ||
≥ AI and < CDRR | 20.6 | 15.7 | 15.3 | 17.4 | ||
≥ CDRR | 65.1 | 74.4 | 73.1 | 70.9 |
Variable | < 15% (n = 2,782) | 15%–30% (n = 3,773) | > 30% (n = 719) | Total (n = 7,274) | F | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
INQ | ||||||
Carbohydrate | 2.71 ± 0.01a | 2.38 ± 0.01b | 1.80 ± 0.02c | 2.29 ± 0.01 | 754.096 | < 0.001 |
Protein | 1.19 ± 0.01c | 1.36 ± 0.01b | 1.43 ± 0.02a | 1.33 ± 0.01 | 147.364 | < 0.001 |
Vitamin A | 0.49 ± 0.01c | 0.64 ± 0.01b | 0.74 ± 0.04a | 0.62 ± 0.01 | 69.386 | < 0.001 |
Vitamin C | 0.75 ± 0.02a | 0.70 ± 0.02a | 0.62 ± 0.03b | 0.69 ± 0.01 | 8.539 | < 0.001 |
Thiamin | 1.18 ± 0.01b | 1.25 ± 0.01a | 1.26 ± 0.03a | 1.23 ± 0.01 | 12.682 | 0.016 |
Riboflavin | 1.04 ± 0.01c | 1.33 ± 0.01b | 1.47 ± 0.02a | 1.28 ± 0.01 | 310.485 | < 0.001 |
Niacin | 0.91 ± 0.01c | 0.97 ± 0.01b | 1.03 ± 0.02a | 0.97 ± 0.01 | 28.677 | < 0.001 |
Folate | 0.94 ± 0.01a | 0.95 ± 0.01a | 0.83 ± 0.02b | 0.90 ± 0.01 | 25.261 | < 0.001 |
Ca | 0.68 ± 0.01c | 0.80 ± 0.01a | 0.76 ± 0.02b | 0.75 ± 0.01 | 53.135 | < 0.001 |
P | 1.52 ± 0.01b | 1.69 ± 0.01a | 1.70 ± 0.02a | 1.64 ± 0.01 | 89.699 | < 0.001 |
Fe | 1.31 ± 0.02 | 1.34 ± 0.01 | 1.30 ± 0.02 | 1.32 ± 0.01 | 1.697 | 0.361 |
Variable | < 15% (n = 2,782) | 15%–30% (n = 3,773) | > 30% (n = 719) | P |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dyslipidemia | 1.03 (0.89–1.20) |
1.00 (reference) | 0.99 (0.77–1.26) | 0.908 |
Stroke | 1.50 (0.90–2.40) | 1.00 | 1.62 (0.74–3.57) | 0.222 |
Myocardial infarction/angina | 1.49 (0.96–2.33) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.44–2.20) | 0.182 |
Hypertension | 1.15 (0.98–1.34) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.78–1.32) | 0.231 |
Diabetes | 1.43 (1.16–1.76) | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.63–1.42) | 0.002 |
Cancer | 1.25 (0.72–2.15) | 1.00 | 0.37 (0.10–1.31) | 0.117 |
Cirrhosis | 3.62 (1.35–9.73) | 1.00 | 5.83 (1.24–27.39) | 0.027 |
Metabolic syndrome | 1.28 (1.12–1.45) | 1.00 | 1.13 (0.91–1.41) | 0.001 |
Obesity | 0.97 (0.86–1.10) | 1.00 | 1.19 (0.98–1.44) | 0.156 |
%. All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population.
%. All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population.
%. All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population. The reference values for each variable are presented separately for males and females. FPG, fasting plasma glucose; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; HDL-cholesterol, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol.
%. All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population. EER, estimated energy requirement; EAR, estimated average requirement; RNI, recommended nutrition intake; AI, adequate intake; UL, tolerable upper intake level; CDRR, chronic disease risk reduction intake.
Mean ± SD. All estimates were produced using a complex sample analysis with integrated sample weight to represent the Korean population. Different superscript letters in a row indicate significant difference at α = 0.05 based on a Bonferroni multiple comparison. INQ, index of nutrition quality.
Odds ratio and 95% confidence interval were calculated using logistic regression analyses. Adjusted for age and sex.