Analysis of Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Intakes and Contribution Rates of Major Dish Groups according to Gender, Age, and Region in Korea

Yeon-Kyung Lee; Mi-Kyeong Choi; Taisun Hyun; Eun-Soon Lyu; Haeryun Park; Hee-Kyong Ro; Young-Ran Heo

doi:10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.32

Articles

Page Path: HOME > Korean J Community Nutr > Volume 25(1); 2020 > Article

Research Article: Korean Journal of Community Nutrition 2020;25(1):32-47.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.32
Published online: January 20, 2020

¹⁾Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea, Professor

²⁾Division of Food Science, Kongju National University, Yesan, South Korea, Professor

³⁾Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, South Korea, Professor

⁴⁾Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea, Professor

⁵⁾Department of Food and Nutrition, Myongji University, Yongin, South Korea, Professor

⁶⁾Department of Food and Nutrition, Dongshin University, Naju, South Korea, Professor

⁷⁾Division of Food and Nutrition, Research Institute for Human Ecology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea, Professor

†Corresponding author Young-Ran Heo Division of Food and Nutrition, Chonnam National University, 77 Youngbongro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, South Korea Tel: (062) 530 1338 Fax: (062) 530 1339 Email: yrhuh@jnu.ac.kr

• Received: January 13, 2020 • Revised: February 5, 2020 • Accepted: February 11, 2020

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

199 Views
0 Download
5 Crossref

prev next

Full Article

Download PDF

Abstract
REFERENCES

Abstract

Objectives
Calcium (Ca) is an insufficiently consumed nutrient, whereas phosphorus (P) intake has exceeded the recommended intake level in Korea over the past decade. The purpose of this study was to analyze dietary Ca and P intakes and their contribution rate according to dish groups.
Methods
A 24-hour dietary recall survey of 640 healthy adults (aged 19–69 years) was undertaken twice in four Korean provinces. Dietary Ca and P intakes and their rates of contribution from 31 major dish groups were analyzed and compared by gender, age group, and region.
Results
The average Ca and P intakes of the subjects were 542.1 ± 222.2 mg/d and 1,068.3 ± 329.0 mg/d, respectively. The intakes of Ca and P as percentages of recommended nutrients intake (RNI%) were 71.7 ± 29.8% and 152.6 ± 47%, respectively, and the percentages under the estimated average requirement were 60.3% for Ca and 3.8% for P. The RNI% of Ca was not significantly different between males and females, but was significantly higher in subjects in the sixties age group than in other age groups and was significantly lower in the Korean capital than in other regions. The RNI% of P did not significantly differ by gender or age groups, but it was significantly higher in the capital than in Gyeong-sang. The five major dish groups contributing to Ca intake (contribution rate) were milks/dairy products 69.2 ± 109.2 mg/d (12.6%), soups 55.6 ± 69.6 mg/d (10.1%), stir-fried foods 53.1 ± 70.7 mg/d (9.7%), stews 43.4 ± 85.4 mg/d (7.9%), and kimchi 38.4 ± 31.8 mg/d (7.0%). The five major dish group contributing to P intake (contribution rate) were cooked rice 160.7 ± 107.1 mg/d (14.9%), stir-fried foods 88.5 ± 89.4 mg/d (8.2%), soups 76.7 ± 85.8 mg/d (7.1%), one-dish meals 63.3 ± 94.4 mg/ d (5.9%), and stews 62.6 ± 89.3 mg/d (5.8%). The dish groups contributing to Ca and P intakes differed somewhat by gender, age group, and region.
Conclusions
Programs to improve the nutritional status of Ca and P intakes should consider the differences in Ca and P contribution rates by dish groups as well as by gender, age group, and region.
Keywords: calcium; phosphorus; intake; dish group; contribution rate

Fig. 1.

Recommended nutrients intake (%) of Ca and P intake by gender and age groups The results were analyzed by ANOVA and bar with the different superscripts in age group within gender are significantly different by Duncan's multiple range test.

Fig. 2.

Contribution rate for Ca (left plot A) and P (right plot B) intake of the all subject by dish groups (n = 640)

Table 1.

Calcium and phosphorous intake of the subjects by gender, age and region

	All (n = 640)	Gender		P-value¹⁾	Age (years)
	All (n = 640)	Male (n = 320)	Female (n = 320)	P-value¹⁾	19∼29 (n = 128)	30∼39 (n = 128)	40∼49 (n = 128)
Calcium Intake (mg/d)	1,542.1 ± 222.3	1,564.0 ± 233.5	1,520.1 ± 208.3	0.012	1,500.1 ± 218.9^b	1,520.1 ± 212.6^b	1,555.7 ± 205.6^ab
RNI (%)	1,871.7 ± 929.8	1,872.9 ± 931.0	1,870.5 ± 928.5	0.316	1,866.8 ± 928.9^b	1,869.5 ± 928.8^b	1,874.3 ± 928.0^ab
<EAR	386 (60.3)	202 (63.1)	184 (57.5)	0.225	88 (68.8)	84 (65.6)	69 (51.6)
Phosphorus Intake (mg/d)	1,068.3 ± 329.0	1,118.9 ± 335.6	1,017.5 ± 314.7	0.000	1,041.2 ± 347.7^b	1,042.7 ± 309.0^b	1,091.7 ± 318.8^bb
RNI³⁾ (%)	1,152.6 ± 947.0	1,159.8 ± 947.9	1,145.4 ± 945.0	0.000	1,148.7 ± 949.7^b	1,149.0 ± 944.1^b	1,156.0 ± 945.5^bb
<EAR³⁾	924 (93.8)	911 (93.4)	913 (94.1)	0.554	11 (98.6)	93 (92.3)	94 (93.1)
Calcium: Phosphorus ratio
Ca: P	1,882.1 ± 990.6	1,892.2 ± 990.6	1,892.1 ± 990.6	0.421	1,892.3 ± 990.7^a	1,892.2 ± 990.7^a	1,892.1 ± 990.6^ab

Mean ± SD or n (%) 1) Gender comparison was analyzed by Student's t-test or χ

²test. 2) The results were analyzed by ANOVA and values with the different superscripts in age and region are significantly different by Duncan's multiple range test or χ

²test. 3) RNI: Recommended nutrients intake; EAR: Estimated average requirement.

Table 1.

continued

Region
50∼59	60∼69	P-value²⁾	Capital	Chung-cheong	Gyeong-sang	Jeolla	P-value²⁾
(n = 128)	(n = 128)		(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)
1,542.0 ± 243.2^b	1,592.5 ± 220.9^a	0.011	1,497.1 ± 206.6^b	1,554.6 ± 206.2^a	1,564.3 ± 226.8^a	1,552.4 ± 243.0^a	0.029
1,970.2 ± 831.9^b	1,977.7 ± 830.3^a	0.028	1,965.7 ± 827.6^b	1,973.8 ±8 27.6^a	1,974.7 ± 830.4^a	1,973.3 ± 832.8^a	0.027
84 (65.6)	64 (50.0)	0.007	105 (65.6)	90 (56.3)	94 (58.8)	97 (60.6)	0.402
1,053.0 ± 328.5	1,112.4 ± 338.6	0.302	1,001.1 ± 285.2^c	1,096.4 ± 334.7^ab	1,130.9 ± 365.7^a	1,080.9 ± 555.6^bc	0.002
1,150.4 ± 846.9	1,158.9 ± 848.3	0.302	1,143.0 ± 840.7^c	1,157.2 ± 848.0^ab	1,161.6 ± 852.3^a	1,149.2 ± 844.7^bc	0.002
84 (83.1)	82 (81.6)	0.060	886 (83.8)	83 (81.9)	88 (85.0)	87 (84.4)	0.488
1,992.1 ± 880.6^ab	1,992.0 ± 880.6^b	0.017	1,992.2 ±88 0.7	1,992.1 ± 880.6	1,992.2 ± 880.7	1,992.1 ± 880.6	0.233

Table 2.

Dietary calcium intake from major dish groups by gender, age and region

	All (n = 640)	Gender		P-value ¹⁾	Age (years)
		Male	Female		19∼29	30∼39	40∼49
		(n = 320)	(n = 320)		(n = 128)	(n = 128)	(n = 128)
Milks/dairy products	69.2 ± 109.2	61.8 ± 112	76.5 ± 106.1	0.090	85.0 ± 131.6	77.9 ± 123.8	59.2 ± 78.9
Soups	55.6 ± 969.6	65.5 ± 975.0∗	45.7 ± 962.3	0.001	33.7 ± 944.4^d	42.5 ± 951.4^cd	63.1 ± 62.4^b
Stir-fired foods	53.1 ± 970.7	55.9 ± 977.8	50.3 ± 962.8	0.317	43.8 ± 952.8	49.7 ± 950.5	60.2 ± 77.5
Stews	43.4 ± 985.4	53.8 ± 101.4∗	33.1 ± 964.1	0.002	27.4 ± 959.4^b	33.4 ± 963.8^b	40.6 ± 84.7^b
Kimchis	38.4 ±9 31.8	42.9 ± 933.4∗	33.9 ±9 29.6	0.001	23.0 ±9 24.5^c	29.9 ± 923.7^c	42.3 ± 32.1^b
Seasoned vegetables	35.6 ± 946.0	38.8 ±9 51.7	32.4 ± 939.3	0.078	24.5 ±9 42.9^b	30.7 ± 940.8^b	30.1 ± 33.7^b
Noodles	35.5 ± 958.8	42.4 ± 964.6∗	28.6 ±9 51.5	0.003	58.3 ± 978.1^a	43.9 ± 963.2^b	31.9 ± 50.9^bc
Bakeries/snacks	28.1 ±9 58.4	27.1 ± 958.3	29.1 ± 958.5	0.658	43.5 ± 976.2^a	49.9 ± 977.4^a	21.8 ± 54.3^b
Beverages/teas	24.0 ± 960.2	18.5 ± 934.2	29.5 ±9 77.6∗	0.021	26.5 ± 957^abc	33.6 ± 100.7^a	29.7 ± 56.4^ab
One-dish meals	22.7 ±9 37.5	22.4 ± 940.1	22.9 ± 934.7	0.850	37.8 ± 947.1^a	25.2 ± 935.9^b	23.3 ± 39.7^bc
Cooked rice	15.0 ±9 16.0	14.9 ± 913.3	15.1 ± 918.3	0.856	98.4 ± 996.8^c	10.6 ± 910.4^c	14.6 ± 13.7^b
Others	14.1 ± 200.2	95.0 ± 952.6	23.1 ± 9278.1	0.253	91.5 ± 996.8	40.0 ± 433.1	99.3 ± 55.8
Roasted foods	13.8 ± 930.1	14.3 ± 926.4	13.2 ± 933.5	0.643	16.3 ±9 44.8	10.5 ± 922.4	12.8 ± 22.5
Steamed foods	11.8 ±9 29.6	12.6 ±927.7	10.9 ± 931.3	0.474	98.4 ± 921.8^b	96.8 ±9 18.2^b	18.0 ± 41.4^a
Pan-fried foods	10.9 ± 919.0	11.1 ±9 17.8	10.6 ±9 20.2	0.759	10.7 ± 920.6	99.5 ±9 15.0	12.2 ± 19.1
Vegetables/seaweeds	10.6 ± 920.1	99.7 ± 920.2	11.4 ± 919.9	0.291	94.6 ± 911.8^c	97.7 ± 917.2^bc	12.2 ± 23.5^ab
Braised foods	10.2 ± 918.0	11.5 ± 918.6	98.8 ± 917.2	0.062	96.2 ± 915.2^c	98.2 ±9 13.2^bc	11.3 ± 18.4^ab
Fruits	10.2 ± 913.6	98.9 ±9 12.9	11.4 ±9 14.1∗	0.021	93.3 ±99 6.5^c	95.8 ± 998.1^c	10.4 ± 12.6^b
Fried foods	98.5 ± 918.0	98.8 ±9 18.6	98.3 ± 917.3	0.757	14.6 ±9 22.4^a	11.2 ±9 18.4^ab	98.4 ± 15.2^bc
Grains/potatoes	97.4 ±9 56.2	98.3 ± 977.8	96.5 ± 916.6	0.683	93.0 ± 915.2	94.9 ± 917.0	94.6 ± 15.4
Beans/nuts/seeds	96.1 ± 915.7	94.6 ± 912.4	97.7 ± 918.3∗	0.014	92.9 ± 999.4^c	93.9 ± 999.7^bc	97.7 ± 19.7^ab
Meat/fish products	94.7 ±9 28.2	94.2 ±9 19.7	95.2 ± 934.6	0.663	92.6 ± 997.2	92.4 ± 999.3	97.2 ± 46.2
Meats/fishes/eggs	94.4 ±9 18.0	94.7 ± 922.6	94.1 ±9 11.6	0.667	92.3 ± 997.7^b	92.3 ± 996.6^b	98.8 ± 32.0^a
Pickled vegetables	93.2 ± 997.7	92.9 ± 997.4	93.6 ± 997.9	0.238	93.2 ± 999.3	93.1 ± 995.5	92.8 ± 96.4
Rice cakes	92.9 ± 914.6	92.2 ± 913.9	93.5 ± 915.4	0.272	90.6 ±99 1.9	92.9 ± 921.2	92.2 ± 96.6
Porridges	92.9 ±9 11.9	92.9 ±9 12.0	92.8 ± 911.9	0.922	91.2 ± 999.9^b	91.1 ± 995.7^b	92.5 ± 99.9^ab
Salted seafoods	92.3 ± 999.5	92.5 ± 999.4	92.2 ±99 9.6	0.631	90.5 ±99 3.3	93.3 ± 912.6	92.3 ±9 7.5
Alcohols	92.1 ±9 95.5	92.6 ± 996.0∗	91.6 ± 995.0	0.021	93.0 ± 997.6^a	91.7 ±99 3.9^ab	93.0 ± 96.0^a
Seasonings	91.7 ± 994.2	91.9 ± 994.7	91.5 ±99 3.7	0.265	91.6 ±99 3.6	91.4 ±99 2.8	91.9 ± 94.5
Sugars/sweeteners	90.9 ± 995.7	91.2 ± 997.5	90.6 ± 993.0	0.167	91.8 ±99 6.1	91.2 ± 997.5	91.3 ± 98.3
Oils/fats	90.0 ± 990.1	90.0 ± 990.1	90.0 ± 990.1	0.302	90.0 ±99 0.1	90.0 ± 990.2	90.0 ± 90.1

Mean ± SD 1) Gender comparison was analyzed by Student's t-test. 2) The results were analyzed by ANOVA and values with the different superscripts in age and region are significantly different by Duncan's multiple range test.

Table 2.

continued

		P-value ²⁾	Region				P-value ²⁾
50∼59	60∼69		Capital	Chung-cheong	Gyeong-sang	Jeolla
(n = 128)	(n = 128)		(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)
58.9 ± 102.0	64.7 ± 101.1	0.205	76.3 ± 125.3	64.6 ± 89.6	78.1 ± 124.5	57.6 ± 991.8	0.280
57.7 ± 966.6^bc	81.1 ± 100.2^a	0.001	41.5 ± 950.7^c	58.7 ± 62.4^b	48.3 ±9 54.0^bc	74.1 ± 997.2^a	0.001
55.5 ± 969.0	56.2 ± 994.2	0.384	50.0 ± 977.4	61.3 ± 72.7	48.4 ±9 59.1	52.7 ± 972.2	0.372
48.6 ± 986.7^ab	67.1 ± 116.1^a	0.002	27.2 ± 951.1^c	51.8 ± 77.7^ab	58.4 ± 113.4^a	36.4 ± 984.9^bc	0.004
44.8 ±9 30.4^b	52.3 ± 937.7^a	0.001	33.7 ± 922.6^b	46.2 ± 38.6^a	34.0 ± 926.7^b	39.8 ± 935.4^ab	0.001
45.3 ± 946.6^a	47.4 ± 958.7^a	0.001	30.8 ±9 39.8	40.2 ± 54.9	33.3 ±9 39.9	38.1 ± 947.7	0.238
27.3 ± 949.9^cd	16.1 ± 933.9^d	0.001	35.2 ±9 53.9^ab	46.9 ± 67.8^a	31.6 ± 952.9^b	28.3 ± 958.1^b	0.028
15.7 ±9 27.3^b	99.7 ± 919.6^b	0.001	33.4 ± 955.0	20.4 ± 38.6	25.6 ± 950.5	33.0 ± 980.6	0.138
17.5 ±9 27.7^bc	12.6 ± 923.9^c	0.030	24.4 ± 946.0	18.9 ± 32.2	27.9 ± 953.0	24.7 ± 992.4	0.611
11.7 ± 929.1^d	15.2 ± 927.0^cd	0.001	19.6 ± 936.0	18.4 ± 29.9	28.1 ± 940.8	24.6 ± 941.7	0.070
16.3 ± 914.4^b	24.9 ± 923.9^a	0.001	15.3 ± 915.2	14.4 ± 13.0	14.7 ± 921.4	15.5 ± 912.9	0.935
99.8 ± 957.0	99.7 ± 982.1	0.586	12.8 ±9 89.6	90.8 ± 94.8	98.2 ± 945.9	34.6 ± 387.6	0.472
13.6 ± 923.7	15.7 ± 931.0	0.544	97.3 ± 913.5^b	16.9 ± 42.3^a	12.5 ±9 24.1^ab	18.4 ± 931.9^a	0.004
11.4 ± 931.5^ab	14.2 ±9 28.3^ab	0.018	97.7 ± 920.6^b	12.6 ± 31.7^ab	16.8 ± 938.8^a	99.9 ±9 23.0^b	0.037
99.6 ± 917.8	12.2 ± 921.8	0.639	99.6 ± 915.8	13.2 ± 19.9	12.0 ± 921.5	98.6 ± 918.1	0.117
12.0 ± 918.8^ab	16.3 ± 924.5^a	0.001	97.9 ± 916.9^b	99.8 ± 16.1^b	17.4 ± 929.5^a	97.2 ± 911.7^b	0.001
11.7 ±9 17.9^ab	13.4 ± 922.9^a	0.009	98.6 ± 913.6	10.1 ± 20.5	10.1 ± 916.5	11.8 ± 920.4	0.478
15.1 ±9 15.4^a	16.3 ±9 17.2^a	0.001	10.2 ± 912.7^ab	98.9 ± 12.0^b	12.7 ± 915.3^a	98.9 ±9 13.8^b	0.040
95.6 ± 917.3^bc	92.9 ± 913.0^c	0.001	98.9 ± 915.5	11.6 ± 23.0	97.1 ± 914.3	96.7 ± 917.5	0.058
16.8 ± 120.5	97.8 ± 922.3	0.290	97.5 ±9 25.4	94.4 ± 13.8	95.0 ± 910.7	12.7 ± 108.2	0.541
97.0 ± 915.0^ab	99.1 ± 920.3^a	0.006	97.7 ± 917.4^ab	93.5 ± 98.9^c	99.1 ± 920.7^a	94.3 ± 912.5^bc	0.003
96.2 ± 929.4	95.0 ± 928.8	0.583	91.4 ±99 5.2^b	92.3 ± 15.5^b	94.0 ± 918.0^b	11.1 ± 950.4^a	0.009
95.1 ± 917.4^ab	93.7 ±9 12.8^b	0.018	92.5 ± 996.9	93.6 ± 12.1	94.5 ± 912.1	97.2 ± 930.7	0.118
93.3 ±99 7.0	93.8 ±99 9.4	0.868	93.1 ± 996.2	93.8 ± 10.0	93.4 ± 996.7	92.7 ± 997.3	0.580
94.8 ±9 22.9	93.8 ± 997.0	0.183	92.6 ±9 19.0	93.2 ±9 6.4	94.0 ±9 20.8	91.6 ± 994.8	0.527
94.0 ±9 12.8^ab	95.5 ± 917.5^a	0.010	95.7 ±9 16.2^a	91.1 ± 97.0^b	92.8 ± 911.8^b	91.9 ± 910.4^b	0.003
92.6 ±9 11.4	92.9 ± 999.8	0.147	91.7 ± 995.5	92.2 ±9 7.7	92.0 ±9 10.6	93.5 ± 912.7	0.356
91.6 ±99 4.4^ab	91.1 ± 994.8^b	0.012	91.7 ±99 4.8	92.1 ± 94.9	92.0 ± 995.0	92.5 ± 997.1	0.589
92.3 ±99 5.4	91.2 ± 994.2	0.232	91.6 ±99 4.4	91.2 ± 93.6	92.2 ± 995.1	91.8 ± 993.5	0.198
90.0 ±99 0.2	90.1 ± 990.9	0.063	91.2 ± 998.1	91.3 ±9 5.4	90.4 ± 992.1	90.6 ± 995.7	0.435
90.0 ±99 0.0	90.0 ± 990.0	0.553	90.0 ± 990.2	90.0 ±9 0.0	90.0 ± 990.1	90.0 ± 990.0	0.685

Table 3.

Comparison of top 20 dishes contributing for dietary calcium intake by gender, age and region

Rank	Gender				Age (years)
Rank	Male (n = 320)		Female (n = 320)		19∼29 (n = 128)		30∼39 (n = 128)		40∼49 (n = 128)
1	Soups	11.6¹⁾	Milks/dairy	14.3	Milks/dairy	17.0	Milks/dairy	14.0	Soups	11.4
			products		products		products
2	Milks/dairy	11.0¹⁾	Stir-fired	9.4	Noodles	11.7	Bakeries/	9.0	Stir-fired	10.8
	products		foods				snacks		foods
3	Stir-fired	9.9¹⁾	Soups	8.6	Stir-fired	8.8	Stir-fired	9.0	Milks/dairy	10.7
	foods				foods		foods		products
4	Stews	9.5¹⁾	Kimchi	6.4	Bakeries/snacks	8.7	Noodles	7.9	Kimchi	7.6
5	Kimchi	7.6¹⁾	Stews	6.2	One-dish	7.6	Soups	7.7	Stews	7.3
					meals
6	Noodles	7.5¹⁾	Seasoned	6.1	Soups	6.7	Others	7.2	Noodles	5.7
			vegetables
7	Seasoned	6.9¹⁾	Beverages/	5.5	Stews	5.5	Beverages/	6.1	Seasoned	5.4
	vegetables		teas				teas		vegetables
8	Bakeries/	4.8¹⁾	Bakeries/	5.5	Beverages/	5.3	Stews	6.0	Beverages/	5.3
	snacks		snacks		teas				teas
9	One-dish	4.0¹⁾	Noodles	5.4	Seasoned	4.9	Seasoned	5.5	One-dish	4.2
	meals				vegetables		vegetables		meals
10	Beverages/	3.3¹⁾	Others	4.3	Kimchi	4.6	Kimchi	5.4	Bakeries/	3.9
	teas								snacks
11	Cooked	2.6¹⁾	One-dish	4.3	Roasted	3.3	One-dish	4.5	Steamed	3.2
	rice		meals		foods		meals		foods
12	Roasted foods	2.5¹⁾	Cooked rice	2.8	Fried foods	2.9	Fried foods	2.0	Cooked rice	2.6
13	Steamed foods	2.2¹⁾	Roasted foods	2.5	Pan-fried foods	2.1	Cooked rice	1.9	Roasted foods	2.3
14	Braised	2.0¹⁾	Fruits	2.1	Cooked	1.7	Roasted	1.9	Pan-fried	2.2
	foods				rice		foods		foods
15	Pan-fried	2.0¹⁾	Vegetables/	2.1	Steamed	1.7	Pan-fried	1.7	Vegetables/	2.2
	foods		seaweeds		foods		foods		seaweeds
16	Vegetables/	1.7¹⁾	Steamed	2.0	Braised	1.2	Braised	1.5	Braised	2.0
	seaweeds		foods		foods		foods		foods
17	Fruits	1.6¹⁾	Pan-fried	2.0	Vegetables/	0.9	Vegetables/	1.4	Fruits	1.9
			foods		seaweeds		seaweeds
18	Fried foods	1.6¹⁾	Braised foods	1.6	Fruits	0.7	Steamed	1.2	Others	1.7
							foods
19	Grains/	1.5¹⁾	Fried foods	1.6	Picked	0.6	Fruits	1.0	Meats/	1.6
	potatoes				vegetables				fishes/eggs
20	Others	0.9¹⁾	Beans/nuts/	1.4	Alcohols	0.6	Grains/	0.9	Fried	1.5
			seeds				potatoes		foods

¹⁾Values are % of total calcium intake from each dish groups.

Table 3.

continued

Region
50∼59 (n = 128)		60∼69 (n = 128)		Capital (n = 160)		Chung-cheong (n = 160)		Gyeong-sang (n = 160)		Jeolla (n = 160)
Milks/dairy products	10.9	Soups	13.7	Milks/dairy products	15.3	Milks/dairy products	11.7	Milks/dairy products	13.8	Soups	12.8
Soups	10.6	Stews	11.3	Stir-fired foods	10.1	Stir-fired foods	11.1	Stews	10.3	Milks/dairy products	9.9
Stir-fired foods	10.2	Milks/dairy products	10.9	Soups	8.3	Soups	10.6	Stir-fired foods	8.6	Stir-fired foods	9.1
Stews	9.0	Stir-fired foods	9.5	Noodles	7.1	Stews	9.3	Soups	8.6	Kimchi	6.9
Seasoned vegetables	8.4	Kimchi	8.8	Kimchi	6.8	Noodles	8.5	Kimchi	6.0	Seasoned vegetables	6.6
Kimchi	8.3	Seasoned vegetables	8.0	Bakeries /snacks	6.7	Kimchi	8.3	Seasoned vegetables	5.9	Stews	6.3
Noodles	5.0	Cooked rice	4.2	Seasoned vegetables	6.2	Seasoned vegetables	7.3	Noodles	5.6	Others	6.0
Beverages/ teas	3.2	Fruits	2.8	Stews	5.5	Bakeries/ snacks	3.7	One-dish meals	5.0	Bakeries/ snacks	5.7
Grains/potatoes	3.1	Vegetables/seaweeds	2.8	Beverages/teas	4.9	Beverages/teas	3.4	Beverages/teas	4.9	Noodles	4.9
Cooked rice	3.0	Noodles	2.7	One-dish meals	3.9	One-dish meals	3.3	Bakeries/snacks	4.5	Beverages/teas	4.3
Bakeries/snacks	2.9	Roasted foods	2.7	Cooked rice	3.1	Roasted foods	3.0	Vegetables/seaweeds	3.1	One-dish meals	4.2
Fruits	2.8	One-dish meals	2.6	Others	2.6	Cooked rice	2.6	Steamed foods	3.0	Roasted foods	3.2
Roasted foods	2.5	Steamed foods	2.4	Fruits	2.1	Pan-fried foods	2.4	Cooked rice	2.6	Cooked rice	2.7
Vegetables/seaweeds	2.2	Braised foods	2.3	Pan-fried foods	1.9	Steamed foods	2.3	Fruits	2.2	Grains/potatoes	2.2
One-dish meals	2.2	Beverages/teas	2.1	Fried foods	1.8	Fried foods	2.1	Roasted foods	2.2	Braised foods	2.0
Braised foods	2.2	Pan-fried foods	2.1	Braised foods	1.7	Braised foods	1.8	Pan-fried foods	2.1	Meat/fish products	1.9
Steamed foods	2.1	Bakeries/snacks	1.6	Vegetables/seaweeds	1.6	Vegetables/seaweeds	1.8	Braised foods	1.8	Steamed foods	1.7
Others	1.8	Others	1.6	Steamed foods	1.5	Fruits	1.6	Beans/nuts/seeds	1.6	Fruits	1.5
Pan-fried foods	1.8	Beans/nuts/seeds	1.5	Beans/nuts/seeds	1.5	Grains/potatoes	0.8	Others	1.5	Pan-fried foods	1.5
Beans/nuts/seeds	1.3	Grains/potatoes	1.3	Grains/potatoes	1.5	Picked vegetables	0.7	Fried foods	1.3	Vegetables/seaweeds	1.2

Table 4.

Dietary phosphorus intake from major dish groups by gender, age and region

	All (n = 640)	Gender		P-value ¹⁾	Age (years)
	All (n = 640)	Male (n = 320)	Female (n = 320)	P-value ¹⁾	19∼29 (n = 128)	30∼39 (n = 128)	40∼49 (n = 128)
Cooked rice	160.7 ± 107.1	169.3 ± 105.3∗	152.1 ± 108.3∗	∗ 0.043	105.0 ± 978.5^cb 1	123.6 ± 986.9^cbb1	160.8 ± 105.2^bb
Stir-fired foods	88.5 ± 989.4	95.2 ± 993.4∗	81.7 ± 984.8∗	∗ 0.056	96.7 ±9 91.9^ab	90.2 ± 978.0^abb	95.4 ±9 91.6^ab
Soups	76.7 ±9 85.8	91.7 ±9 96.0∗	61.7 ± 971.1∗	∗ 0.001	53.5 ± 968.6^cb	66.4 ±9 99.9^bcb	83.6 ± 976.7^ab
One-dish meals	63.3 ±9 94.4	61.4 ±9 93.8∗	65.2 ±9 95.2∗	∗ 0.614	107.0 ± 122.7^ab	73.0 ± 996.0^bbb	68.8 ± 996.0^bb
Stews	62.6 ± 989.3	76.5 ± 101.8∗	48.7 ± 972.3∗	∗ 0.001	43.9 ± 971.9^cb	52.8 ±9 77.3^bcb	56.3 ± 979.7^bc
Noodles	57.3 ± 980.7	63.5 ± 983.7∗	51.1 ± 977.2∗	∗ 0.051	77.9 ±9 93.4^ab	72.7 ±9 87.6^abb	52.8 ±9 74.7^bb
Milk/dairy products	57.3 ±9 93.8	50.0 ±9 96.2∗	64.6 ± 990.8∗	∗ 0.049	68.1 ± 110.6^ab	65.5 ± 108.6^abb	49.5 ± 970.2^ab
Roasted foods	53.5 ±9 85.9	59.9 ±9 84.2∗	47.1 ± 987.2∗	∗ 0.060	68.9 ± 122.1^ab	47.2 ±9 76.8^abb	48.4 ± 970.5^ab
Bakeries/snacks	52.3 ±9 87.2	48.2 ±9 83.0∗	56.4 ±9 91.2∗	∗ 0.236	77.8 ± 105.0^ab	91.6 ± 117.0^abb	39.6 ±9 74.4^bb
Seasoned vegetables	43.0 ± 954.6	46.6 ± 958.3∗	39.4 ±9 50.4∗	∗ 0.093	30.6 ± 949.8^bb	42.3 ± 962.3^abb	40.5 ± 940.0^ab
Fried foods	39.1 ±9 81.0	42.3 ±9 90.6∗	35.9 ±9 70.2∗	∗ 0.320	77.8 ± 126.0^ab	53.0 ± 987.8^bbb	32.8 ±9 57.4^cb
Beverages/teas	35.5 ± 973.5	29.9 ±9 53.4∗	4.01 ±9 88.9∗	∗ 0.057	31.4 ±9 52.3^ab	43.2 ± 105.6^abb	47.7 ±9 89.1^ab
Pan-fried foods	32.4 ±9 57.9	32.9 ± 951.9∗	31.9 ±9 63.4∗	∗ 0.825	31.6 ± 956.9^ab	29.6 ±9 47.7^abb	35.7 ± 955.5^ab
Kimchi	32.1 ± 926.2	37.1 ± 928.2∗	27.2 ±9 23.2∗	∗ 0.001	20.7 ± 922.6^cb	25.9 ±9 19.7^cbb	34.7 ± 925.7^bb
Steamed foods	32.0 ±9 71.6	37.1 ±9 84.8∗	26.8 ± 954.9∗	∗ 0.071	34.7 ± 993.6^ab	19.4 ± 939.6^ab	41.9 ± 969.8^ab
Braised foods	31.0 ± 954.0	35.2 ±9 56.5∗	26.8 ±9 51.1∗	∗ 0.048	18.0 ± 940.2^bb	29.3 ± 949.9^abb	34.4 ± 958.6^ab
Fruits	22.7 ± 934.9	19.9 ±9 36.2∗	25.6 ±9 33.3∗	∗ 0.039	6.8 ± 913.2^cb	12.1 ±9 15.1^cbb	21.4 ±9 24.3^bb
Grains/potatoes	19.4 ±9 66.3	16.8 ± 980.0∗	22.1 ±9 48.8∗	∗ 0.316	7.6 ± 924.4^bb	14.7 ± 938.6^bbb	17.7 ± 951.8^ab
Beans/nuts/seeds	19.1 ±9 50.4	14.2 ±9 37.8∗	23.9 ±9 60.0∗	∗ 0.016	7.9 ± 922.7^cb	11.9 ± 927.5^bcb	19.1 ± 944.8^bc
Meats/fishes/eggs	16.2 ± 960.7	17.7 ± 976.4∗	14.6 ±9 39.3∗	∗ 0.514	10.8 ±9 39.7^ab	11.0 ± 932.9^abb	25.7 ±9 77.6^ab
Others	15.5 ± 256.5	3.8 ±9 23.6∗	27.1 ± 361.9∗	∗ 0.251	3.1 ± 916.4^ab	51.1 ± 566.1^abb	4.4 ± 925.9^ab
Meat/fish products	14.5 ± 939.6	15.9 ± 940.8∗	13.2 ± 938.4∗	∗ 0.384	23.6 ± 943.7^ab	14.1 ±9 36.1^abc	18.8 ± 952.8^ab
Vegetables/seaweeds	13.2 ± 925.3	12.0 ± 925.2∗	14.5 ± 925.3∗	∗ 0.204	7.3 ± 919.2^cb	10.6 ±9 24.8^bcb	15.1 ±9 26.4^ab
Alcohols	12.6 ± 930.1	14.5 ± 931.0∗	10.6 ±9 29.1∗	∗ 0.106	16.6 ±9 30.4^ab	12.1 ± 927.4^bbb	21.7 ± 942.1^ab
Rice cakes	8.1 ± 920.9	6.5 ± 921.8∗	9.6 ± 919.9∗	∗ 0.062	2.2 ± 996.9^cb	5.8 ± 927.7^bcb	7.2 ± 918.9^bc
Porridges	7.4 ±9 32.9	8.5 ±9 39.7∗	6.3 ±9 24.2∗	∗ 0.391	0.8 ± 994.5^bb	4.4 ± 916.9^bbb	6.7 ± 928.4^bb
Pickled vegetables	3.6 ± 998.5	3.6 ± 999.1∗	3.5 ± 997.8∗	∗ 0.869	2.8 ±99 8.0^ab	3.5 ± 996.5^abb	3.0 ± 997.2^ab
Seasonings	3.5 ± 997.8	3.9 ± 998.7∗	3.0 ± 996.8∗	∗ 0.136	4.4 ± 999.9^ab	3.8 ±99 7.9^abb	3.2 ± 996.1^ab
Salted seafoods	2.9 ± 912.3	3.1 ± 912.8∗	2.8 ±9 11.9∗	∗ 0.745	0.8 ± 995.4^ab	4.6 ± 917.8^abb	2.2 ±99 6.9^ab
Sugars/sweeteners	1.5 ± 997.4	1.9 ±99 8.8∗	1.2 ± 995.6∗	∗ 0.265	2.8 ± 998.7^ab	2.4 ± 999.8^abb	2.1 ± 999.6^ab
Oils/fats	0.2 ± 992.3	0.1 ± 990.9∗	0.3 ± 993.0∗	∗ 0.283	0.1 ± 990.8^ab	0.4 ± 994.0^abb	0.3 ±99 2.9^ab

Table 4.

Continued

		P-value ²⁾	Region				P-value ²⁾
50∼59 (n = 128)	60∼69 (n = 128)	P-value ²⁾	Capital (n = 160)	Chung-cheong (n = 160)	Gyeong-sang (n = 160)	Jeolla (n = 160)	P-value ²⁾
182.5 ± 99.4^b	231.6 ± 113.9^a	0.001	152.2 ± 100.6	154.8 ± 893.6	167.5 ± 123.1	168.3 ± 108.8	0.401
886.7 ± 90.1	873.5 ± 893.9	0.237	886.9 ± 889.5	898.3 ±8 96.2	886.6 ± 879.0	882.2 ±8 92.0	0.420
892.8 ± 91.4^a	887.1 ± 883.7^ab	0.001	861.5 ± 892.0	884.5 ± 880.3	876.5 ±8 84.0	884.3 ±8 85.0	0.054
830.0 ± 54.0^c	837.6 ± 868.0^c	0.001	849.8 ±8 74.3	857.7 ± 894.9	876.7 ± 104.3	868.9 ±8 99.9	0.054
869.2 ± 86.1^ab	890.7 ± 117.7^a	0.001	848.3 ± 875.6^b	875.4 ±8 94.6^a	874.7 ± 102.2^a	851.9 ±8 79.3^b	0.005
849.4 ± 71.6^b	833.8 ± 865.8^b	0.001	861.1 ± 879.8^a	867.9 ±8 85.0^a	858.7 ±8 81.6^ab	841.4 ± 874.1^b	0.024
849.5 ± 82.7	853.7 ± 890.1	0.325	868.4 ± 115.1	857.3 ± 882.0	854.8 ± 893.7	848.6 ± 879.9	0.291
847.3 ± 62.1	855.5 ± 884.6	0.199	838.8 ± 863.0	861.0 ± 110.2	854.3 ±8 87.2	859.8 ±8 74.9	0.078
834.1 ± 55.8^b	818.6 ± 832.7^b	0.001	862.5 ± 896.7	844.9 ± 872.4	848.1 ± 874.2	853.8 ± 101.5	0.293
851.1 ± 52.0^a	850.4 ± 863.4^a	0.017	839.9 ± 857.4	844.9 ±8 55.8	838.9 ±8 36.4	848.2 ± 864.5	0.386
819.9 ± 46.5^cd	812.1 ±8 33.6^d	0.001	848.6 ± 889.3^ab	850.4 ± 103.0^a	831.3 ± 860.8^bc	826.2 ±8 60.3^c	0.012
831.6 ± 50.2	823.4 ± 849.2	0.057	838.0 ± 861.3	825.9 ±8 37.4	839.4 ± 889.7	838.5 ± 891.5	0.303
828.9 ± 55.5	836.0 ± 871.9	0.791	826.9 ±8 44.3	841.3 ± 862.8	832.9 ± 854.9	828.3 ± 866.7	0.109
836.5 ± 25.1^b	842.8 ± 831.1^a	0.001	829.2 ± 820.4^b	837.4 ± 831.0^a	829.9 ±8 23.8^b	832.1 ± 827.9^ab	0.021
825.0 ± 54.8	838.7 ± 885.0	0.062	825.7 ±8 54.8^b	831.0 ± 853.9^b	848.6 ± 109.9^a	822.5 ± 846.9^b	0.005
835.1 ± 52.7^a	838.1 ±8 63.9^a	0.025	830.3 ±8 49.5	829.5 ± 855.4	830.5 ± 851.7	833.6 ±8 59.2	0.910
835.0 ± 40.3^a	838.4 ± 852.4^a	0.001	820.8 ±8 25.1	819.3 ± 831.2	827.7 ± 846.4	823.0 ±8 33.1	0.155
832.7 ± 118.4^a	824.4 ±8 54.2^ab	0.030	822.1 ± 860.8	817.6 ± 860.0	818.2 ±8 34.1	819.9 ±8 95.8	0.933
823.7 ± 48.9^ab	832.6 ±8 81.9^a	0.001	821.3 ± 842.2^ab	811.4 ± 827.6^b	829.9 ± 877.3^a	813.6 ± 838.3^b	0.004
815.6 ± 35.1	817.6 ± 892.1	0.272	811.0 ±8 35.9	819.7 ± 887.2	815.5 ± 838.1	818.3 ±8 66.6	0.594
813.3 ± 84.1	885.4 ±8 30.7	0.524	881.2 ± 810.4	881.5 ±8 10.9	811.7 ± 877.5	847.5 ± 506.7	0.322
889.7 ± 28.7^bc	886.4 ± 829.7^c	0.003	888.0 ± 822.4^b	813.6 ± 838.1^ab	815.3 ± 840.8^ab	821.2 ± 851.0^a	0.028
813.0 ± 19.0^bc	820.1 ± 832.8^a	0.001	812.1 ± 828.6^b	811.1 ± 816.5^b	820.2 ±8 34.1^a	889.6 ± 815.8^b	0.001
889.1 ± 26.4^bc	883.3 ± 814.8^c	0.001	889.2 ±8 24.1	814.6 ± 832.2	811.8 ± 826.1	814.7 ± 836.4	0.310
810.4 ± 19.5^ab	814.7 ± 823.7^a	0.001	884.9 ± 824.8^b	813.1 ± 821.4^a	888.6 ± 819.3^ab	885.8 ± 816.5^b	0.002
889.2 ± 29.9^ab	816.0 ±8 57.4^a	0.004	812.5 ± 849.2^a	882.2 ± 815.5^b	888.7 ± 830.2^ab	886.3 ± 826.6^ab	0.042
883.9 ± 89.4	884.5 ± 810.6	0.472	882.9 ±88 6.6	883.8 ± 889.3	884.6 ±88 9.5	882.9 ± 888.1	0.215
883.8 ± 88.3	882.0 ±88 5.9	0.146	882.8 ± 887.3^b	882.3 ± 885.4^b	884.8 ± 889.7^a	884.0 ±88 8.0^ab	0.018
883.8 ± 14.7	883.3 ± 812.1	0.125	882.3 ±88 7.7	881.9 ± 887.3	882.9 ± 815.6	884.7 ± 815.8	0.184
880.2 ± 81.9^b	880.2 ±88 1.2^b	0.006	881.8 ± 888.6	882.3 ± 888.9	881.3 ± 886.3	880.7 ± 885.3	0.284
880.0 ±8 0.0	880.0 ±88 0.0	0.412	880.4 ±88 3.7	880.1 ± 880.7	880.2 ± 882.4	880.0 ± 880.0	0.433

Table 5.

Comparison of top 20 dishes contributing for dietary phosphorous intake by gender, age and region

Rank	Gender				Age (years)
Rank	Male (n = 320)		Female (n = 320)		19∼29 (n = 128)		30∼39 (n = 128)		40∼49 (n = 128)
1	Cooked rice	15.1¹⁾	Cooked rice	15.2	One-dish meals	10.3	Cooked rice	11.4	Cooked rice	14.7
2	Stir-fired foods	88.5	Stir-fired foods	8.2	Cooked rice	10.1	Bakeries/snacks	8.4	Stir-fired foods	8.7
3	Soups	88.2	One-dish meals	6.5	Stir-fired foods	9.3	Stir-fired foods	8.3	Soups	7.7
4	Stews	86.8	Milks/dairy products	6.5	Noodles	7.5	One-dish meals	6.7	One-dish meals	6.3
5	Noodles	85.7	Soups	6.2	Bakeries/snacks	7.5	Noodles	6.7	Stews	5.2
6	One-dish meals	85.5	Bakeries/snacks	5.6	Fried foods	7.5	Soups	6.1	Noodles	4.8
7	Roasted foods	85.4	Noodles	5.1	Roasted foods	6.6	Milk/dairy products	6.0	Milk/dairy products	4.5
8	Milk/dairy products	84.5	Stews	4.9	Milks/dairy products	6.5	Fried foods	4.9	Roasted foods	4.4
9	Bakeries/snacks	84.3	Roasted foods	4.7	Soups	5.1	Stews	4.9	Beverages/teas	4.4
10	Seasoned vegetables	84.2	Seasoned vegetables	3.9	Stews	4.2	Others	4.7	Steamed foods	3.8
11	Fried foods	83.8	Fried foods	3.6	Steamed foods	3.3	Roasted foods	4.3	Seasoned vegetables	3.7
12	Steamed foods	83.3	Pan-fried foods	3.2	Pan-fried foods	3.0	Beverages/teas	4.0	Bakeries/snacks	3.6
13	Kimchi	83.3	Kimchi	2.7	Beverages/teas	3.0	Seasoned vegetables	3.9	Pan-fried foods	3.3
14	Braised foods	83.1	Others	2.7	Seasoned vegetables	2.9	Pan-fried foods	2.7	Kimchi	3.2
15	Pan-fried foods	82.9	Steamed foods	2.7	Meat/fish products	2.3	Braised foods	2.7	Braised foods	3.2
16	Beverages/teas	82.7	Braised foods	2.7	Kimchi	2.0	Kimchi	2.4	Fried foods	3.0
17	Fruits	81.8	Fruits	2.6	Braised foods	1.7	Steamed foods	1.8	Meats/fishes/eggs	2.4
18	Meats/fishes/eggs	81.6	Beans/nuts/seeds	2.4	Alcohols	1.6	Grains/potatoes	1.4	Alcohols	2.0
19	Grains/potatoes	81.5	Grains/potatoes	2.2	Meats/fishes/eggs	1.0	Meat/fish products	1.3	Fruits	2.0
20	Meat/fish products	81.4	Meats/fishes/eggs	1.5	Beans/nuts/seeds	0.8	Alcohols	1.1	Beans/nuts/seeds	1.7

¹⁾Values are % of total phosphorus intake from each dish groups.

Table 5.

Continued

Region
50∼59 (n =128)		60∼69 (n = 128)		Capital (n = 160)		Chung-cheong (n = 160)		Gyeong-sang (n = 160)		Jeolla (n = 160)
Cooked rice	17.3	Cooked rice	20.8	Cooked rice	15.2	Cooked rice	14.1	Cooked rice	14.8	Cooked rice	15.6
Soups	8.8	Stews	8.2	Stir-fired foods	8.7	Stir-fired foods	9.0	Stir-fired foods	7.7	Soups	7.8
Stir-fired foods	8.2	Soups	7.8	Milks/dairy products	6.8	Soups	7.7	One-dish meals	6.8	Stir-fired foods	7.6
Stews	6.6	Stir-fired foods	6.6	Bakeries/snacks	6.2	Stews	6.9	Soups	6.8	One-dish meals	6.4
Seasoned vegetables	4.9	Roasted foods	5.0	Soups	6.1	Noodles	6.2	Stews	6.6	Roasted foods	5.5
Milk/dairy products	4.7	Milks/dairy products	4.8	Noodles	6.1	Roasted foods	5.6	Noodles	5.2	Bakeries/snacks	5.0
Noodles	4.7	Seasoned vegetables	4.5	One-dish meals	5.0	One-dish meals	5.3	Milks/dairy products	4.8	Stews	4.8
Roasted foods	4.5	Kimchi	3.8	Fried foods	4.9	Milks/dairy products	5.2	Roasted foods	4.8	Milks/dairy products	4.5
Kimchi	3.5	Steamed foods	3.5	Stews	4.8	Fried foods	4.6	Steamed foods	4.3	Seasoned vegetables	4.5
Braised foods	3.3	Fruits	3.5	Seasoned vegetables	4.0	Bakeries/snacks	4.1	Bakeries/snacks	4.3	Others	4.4
Fruits	3.3	Braised foods	3.4	Roasted foods	3.9	Seasoned vegetables	4.1	Beverages/teas	3.5	Noodles	3.8
Bakeries/snacks	3.2	One-dish meals	3.4	Beverages/teas	3.8	Pan-fried foods	3.8	Seasoned vegetables	3.4	Beverages/teas	3.6
Grains/potatoes	3.1	Pan-fried foods	3.2	Braised foods	3.0	Kimchi	3.4	Pan-fried foods	2.9	Braised foods	3.1
Beverages/teas	3.0	Noodles	3.0	Kimchi	2.9	Steamed foods	2.8	Fried foods	2.8	Kimchi	3.0
One-dish meals	2.8	Beans/nuts/seeds	2.9	Pan-fried foods	2.7	Braised foods	2.7	Braised foods	2.7	Pan-fried foods	2.6
Pan-fried foods	2.7	Grains/potatoes	2.2	Steamed foods	2.6	Beverages/teas	2.4	Kimchi	2.6	Fried foods	2.4
Steamed foods	2.4	Beverages/teas	2.1	Grains/potatoes	2.2	Meats/fishes/eggs	1.8	Beans/nuts/seeds	2.6	Fruits	2.1
Beans/nusts/seeds	2.3	Vegetables/seaweeds	1.8	Beans/nuts/seeds	2.1	Fruits	1.8	Fruits	2.4	Steamed foods	2.1
Fried foods	1.9	Bakeries/snacks	1.7	Fruits	2.1	Grains/potatoes	1.6	Vegetables/seaweeds	1.8	Meat/fish products	2.0
Meats/fishes/eggs	1.5	Meats/fishes/eggs	1.6	Porridges	1.2	Alcohols	1.3	Grains/potatoes	1.6	Grains/potatoes	1.8

REFERENCES

1. Cashman KD. Calcium intake, calcium bioavailability and bone health. Br J Nutr 2002; 87(S2): S169-S177.Article PubMed
2. Flynn A. The role of dietary calcium in bone health. Proc Nutr Soc 2003; 62(4): 851-858.Article PubMed
3. Matkovic V, Goel PK, Badenhop-Stevens NE, Landoll JD, Li B, Ilich JZ, et al. Calcium supplementation and bone mineral density in females from childhood to young adulthood: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 81(1): 175-188.PubMed
4. Movassagh EZ, Vatanparast H. Current evidence on the association of dietary patterns and bone health: A scoping review. Adv Nutr 2017; 8(1): 1-16.Article PubMed PMC
5. Weaver CM. Nutrition and bone health. Oral Dis 2017; 23(4): 412-415.Article PubMed PDF
6. Lee YK, Hyun TS, Oh SY, Park HR, Ro HK, Heo YR, et al. Serum calcium is associated with dyslipidemia in a free-living Korean population: a cross sectional study. Trace Elem Electrolytes 2017; 34(4): 159-165.
7. Pannu PK, Calton EK, Soares MJ. Calcium and vitamin D in obesity and related chronic disease. Adv Food Nutr Res 2016; 77: 57-100.Article PubMed
8. Peterlik M, Cross HS. Vitamin D and calcium insufficiency-related chronic diseases: molecular and cellular pathophysiology. Eur J Clin Nutr 2009; 63(12): 1377-1386.Article PubMed PDF
9. Chrysant SG, Chrysant GS. Controversy regarding the association of high calcium intake and increased risk for cardiovascular disease. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2014; 16(8): 545-550.Article PubMed PMC PDF
10. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2017: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VII-2). Sejong: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2018.
11. Ministry of Health and Welfare, The Korean Nutrition Society. Dietary reference intake for Koreans 2015. Sejong: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2015. p. 570-637.
12. Calvo MS, Tucker KL. Is phosphorus intake that exceeds dietary requirements a risk factor in bone health? Ann NY Acad Sci 2013; 1301(1): 29-35.Article PubMed PDF
13. Calvo MS, Uribarri J. Public health impact of dietary phosphorus excess on bone and cardiovascular health in the general population. Am J Clin Nutr 2013; 98(1): 6-15.Article PubMed
14. Ito S, Ishida H, Uenishi K, Murakami K, Sasaki S. The relationship between habitual dietary phosphorus and calcium intake, and bone mineral density in young Japanese women: a cross-sectional study. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2011; 20(3): 411-417.PubMed
15. Gutiérrez OM, Luzuriaga-McPherson A, Lin Y, Gilbert LC, Ha SW, Beck GR Jr. Impact of phosphorus-based food additives on bone and mineral metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100(11): 4264-4271.Article PubMed PMC
16. Lee AW, Cho SS. Association between phosphorus intake and bone health in the NHANES population. Nutr J 2015; 14(2): 28.Article PubMed PMC PDF
17. Choi YS. Development of research methods for determination of the dietary reference intakes for calcium. Cheongju: Korea Center for Disease Control and Prevention; 2012.
18. Jeong HK, Kim JY, Lee HS, Kim JY. The effect of dietary calcium and phosphate levels on calcium and bone metabolism in rats. Korean J Nutr 1997; 30(7): 813-824.
19. Vorland CJ, Stremke ER, Moorthi RN, Hill Gallant KM. Effects of excessive dietary phosphorus intake on bone health. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2017; 15(5): 473-482.Article PubMed PMC PDF
20. Lee YK. Development of sodium adaptation index based on dietary habits of Korean. Cheongju: National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation; 2016.
21. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2012: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V). Sejong: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2013.
22. Bristow SM, Gamble GD, Stewart A, Horne L, House ME, Aati O, et al. Acute and 3-month effects of microcrystalline hydroxyapatite, calcium citrate and calcium carbonate on serum calcium and markers of bone turnover: a randomised controlled trial in postmenopausal women. Br J Nutr 2014; 112(10): 1611-1620.Article PubMed
23. Lau EM, Woo J, Lam V, Hong A. Milk supplementation of the diet of postmenopausal Chinese women on a low calcium intake retards bone loss. J Bone Miner Res 2001; 16(9): 1704-1709.Article PubMed PDF
24. Kim JY, Ahn BI. Effect of consumer's dietary lifestyle on consumption pattern of processed foods. Korean J Food Market Econ 2015; 32(1): 31-53.
25. Host A, McMahon AT, Walton K, Charlton K. Factors influencing food choice for independently living older people: A systematic literature review. J Nutr Gerontol Geriatr 2016; 35(2): 67-94.Article PubMed
26. Pechey R, Monsivais P. Socioeconomic inequalities in the healthiness of food choices: Exploring the contributions of food expenditures. Prev Med 2016; 88: 203-209.Article PubMed PMC
27. Kim OY, Kwak SY, Kim B, Kim YS, Kim HY, Shin MJ. Selected food consumption mediates the association between education level and metabolic syndrome in Korean adults. Ann Nutr Metab 2017; 70(2): 122-131.Article PubMed PDF
28. Shin BR, Choi YK, Kim HN, Song SW. High dietary calcium intake and a lack of dairy consumption are associated with metabolic syndrome in obese males: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010 to 2012. Nutr Res 2016; 36(6): 518-525.Article PubMed
29. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Office for Healthcare Policy. Korea Health Statistics 2015: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VI-3). Sejong: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2016.
30. Calvo MS, Lamberg-Allardt CJ. Phosphorus. Adv Nutr 2015; 6(6): 860-862.Article PubMed PMC
31. Takeda E, Yamamoto H, Yamanaka-Okumura H, Taketani Y. Increasing dietary phosphorus intake from food additives: potential for negative impact on bone health. Adv Nutr 2014; 5(1): 92-97.Article PubMed PMC
32. Lou-Arnal LM, Arnaudas-Casanova L, Caverni-Muñoz A, Vercet-Tormo A, Caramelo-Gutiérrez R, Munguía-Navarro P, et al. Hidden sources of phosphorus: presence of phosphorus-containing additives in processed foods. Nefrologia 2014; 34(4): 498-506.PubMed
33. Shimada M, Shutto-Uchita Y, Yamabe H. Lack of awareness of dietary sources of phosphorus is a clinical concern. In Vivo 2019; 33(1): 11-16.Article PubMed PMC
34. Korea Rural Economic Institute. The consumer behavior survey for food 2018. Naju: Korea Rural Economic Institute; 2018.
35. Adatorwovor R, Roggenkamp K, Anderson JJ. Intakes of calcium and phosphorus and calculated calcium-to-phosphorus ratios of older adults: NHANES 2005–2006 data. Nutrients 2015; 7(11): 9633-9639.Article PubMed PMC

Figure & Data

REFERENCES

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Effects of Lactarius hatsudake fortification on physicochemical, microbiological and antioxidant properties of stirred-type yogurt during cold storage
Hanyu Zhu, Geqing Li, Huijing Liu, Weifeng Sun, Xiaoqian Yao, Rui Wu, Jiajia Hu, Qihui Yang
Food Science of Animal Resources.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Physicochemical Properties of Restructured Black Goat Jerky with Various Types of Ultra-Ground Seaweed Powders
Ui-Bin Baek, Hack-Youn Kim
Food Science of Animal Resources.2024; 44(2): 483. CrossRef
Improving the nutrition quotient and dietary self-efficacy through personalized goal setting and smartphone-based nutrition counseling among adults in their 20s and 30s
Dahyeon Kim, Dawon Park, Young-Hee Han, Taisun Hyun
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2023; 56(4): 419. CrossRef
Longitudinal Effects of Serum Calcium and Phosphate Levels and Their Ratio on Incident Ischemic Heart Disease among Korean Adults
Dong Hyuk Jung, Byoungjin Park, Yong Jae Lee
Biomolecules.2022; 12(1): 103. CrossRef
Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Mineral Density in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients With Osteoporosis
Oh Chan Kwon, Ji Seon Oh, Min-Chan Park, Yong-Gil Kim
Frontiers in Medicine.2020;[Epub] CrossRef

PubReader
ePub Link

Cite

CITE: export Copy Download Format; Close

Download Citation

Download a citation file in RIS format that can be imported by all major citation management software, including EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and Reference Manager.

Format:

RIS — For EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and most other reference management software
BibTeX — For JabRef, BibDesk, and other BibTeX-specific software

Include:

Citation for the content below
Citation and abstract for the content below

Analysis of Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Intakes and Contribution Rates of Major Dish Groups according to Gender, Age, and Region in Korea

Korean J Community Nutr. 2020;25(1):32-47. Published online February 29, 2020

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.32

XML Download

Figure

We recommend

Analysis of Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Intakes and Contribution Rates of Major Dish Groups according to Gender, Age, and Region in Korea

Fig. 1. Recommended nutrients intake (%) of Ca and P intake by gender and age groups The results were analyzed by ANOVA and bar with the different superscripts in age group within gender are significantly different by Duncan's multiple range test.

Fig. 2. Contribution rate for Ca (left plot A) and P (right plot B) intake of the all subject by dish groups (n = 640)

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Analysis of Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Intakes and Contribution Rates of Major Dish Groups according to Gender, Age, and Region in Korea

Table 1.

Calcium and phosphorous intake of the subjects by gender, age and region

	All (n = 640)	Gender		P-value¹⁾	Age (years)
	All (n = 640)	Male (n = 320)	Female (n = 320)	P-value¹⁾	19∼29 (n = 128)	30∼39 (n = 128)	40∼49 (n = 128)
Calcium Intake (mg/d)	1,542.1 ± 222.3	1,564.0 ± 233.5	1,520.1 ± 208.3	0.012	1,500.1 ± 218.9^b	1,520.1 ± 212.6^b	1,555.7 ± 205.6^ab
RNI (%)	1,871.7 ± 929.8	1,872.9 ± 931.0	1,870.5 ± 928.5	0.316	1,866.8 ± 928.9^b	1,869.5 ± 928.8^b	1,874.3 ± 928.0^ab
<EAR	386 (60.3)	202 (63.1)	184 (57.5)	0.225	88 (68.8)	84 (65.6)	69 (51.6)
Phosphorus Intake (mg/d)	1,068.3 ± 329.0	1,118.9 ± 335.6	1,017.5 ± 314.7	0.000	1,041.2 ± 347.7^b	1,042.7 ± 309.0^b	1,091.7 ± 318.8^bb
RNI³⁾ (%)	1,152.6 ± 947.0	1,159.8 ± 947.9	1,145.4 ± 945.0	0.000	1,148.7 ± 949.7^b	1,149.0 ± 944.1^b	1,156.0 ± 945.5^bb
<EAR³⁾	924 (93.8)	911 (93.4)	913 (94.1)	0.554	11 (98.6)	93 (92.3)	94 (93.1)
Calcium: Phosphorus ratio
Ca: P	1,882.1 ± 990.6	1,892.2 ± 990.6	1,892.1 ± 990.6	0.421	1,892.3 ± 990.7^a	1,892.2 ± 990.7^a	1,892.1 ± 990.6^ab

Mean ± SD or n (%) 1) Gender comparison was analyzed by Student's t-test or χ

²test. 2) The results were analyzed by ANOVA and values with the different superscripts in age and region are significantly different by Duncan's multiple range test or χ

²test. 3) RNI: Recommended nutrients intake; EAR: Estimated average requirement.

Table 1.

continued

Region
50∼59	60∼69	P-value²⁾	Capital	Chung-cheong	Gyeong-sang	Jeolla	P-value²⁾
(n = 128)	(n = 128)		(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)
1,542.0 ± 243.2^b	1,592.5 ± 220.9^a	0.011	1,497.1 ± 206.6^b	1,554.6 ± 206.2^a	1,564.3 ± 226.8^a	1,552.4 ± 243.0^a	0.029
1,970.2 ± 831.9^b	1,977.7 ± 830.3^a	0.028	1,965.7 ± 827.6^b	1,973.8 ±8 27.6^a	1,974.7 ± 830.4^a	1,973.3 ± 832.8^a	0.027
84 (65.6)	64 (50.0)	0.007	105 (65.6)	90 (56.3)	94 (58.8)	97 (60.6)	0.402
1,053.0 ± 328.5	1,112.4 ± 338.6	0.302	1,001.1 ± 285.2^c	1,096.4 ± 334.7^ab	1,130.9 ± 365.7^a	1,080.9 ± 555.6^bc	0.002
1,150.4 ± 846.9	1,158.9 ± 848.3	0.302	1,143.0 ± 840.7^c	1,157.2 ± 848.0^ab	1,161.6 ± 852.3^a	1,149.2 ± 844.7^bc	0.002
84 (83.1)	82 (81.6)	0.060	886 (83.8)	83 (81.9)	88 (85.0)	87 (84.4)	0.488
1,992.1 ± 880.6^ab	1,992.0 ± 880.6^b	0.017	1,992.2 ±88 0.7	1,992.1 ± 880.6	1,992.2 ± 880.7	1,992.1 ± 880.6	0.233

Table 2.

Dietary calcium intake from major dish groups by gender, age and region

	All (n = 640)	Gender		P-value ¹⁾	Age (years)
		Male	Female		19∼29	30∼39	40∼49
		(n = 320)	(n = 320)		(n = 128)	(n = 128)	(n = 128)
Milks/dairy products	69.2 ± 109.2	61.8 ± 112	76.5 ± 106.1	0.090	85.0 ± 131.6	77.9 ± 123.8	59.2 ± 78.9
Soups	55.6 ± 969.6	65.5 ± 975.0∗	45.7 ± 962.3	0.001	33.7 ± 944.4^d	42.5 ± 951.4^cd	63.1 ± 62.4^b
Stir-fired foods	53.1 ± 970.7	55.9 ± 977.8	50.3 ± 962.8	0.317	43.8 ± 952.8	49.7 ± 950.5	60.2 ± 77.5
Stews	43.4 ± 985.4	53.8 ± 101.4∗	33.1 ± 964.1	0.002	27.4 ± 959.4^b	33.4 ± 963.8^b	40.6 ± 84.7^b
Kimchis	38.4 ±9 31.8	42.9 ± 933.4∗	33.9 ±9 29.6	0.001	23.0 ±9 24.5^c	29.9 ± 923.7^c	42.3 ± 32.1^b
Seasoned vegetables	35.6 ± 946.0	38.8 ±9 51.7	32.4 ± 939.3	0.078	24.5 ±9 42.9^b	30.7 ± 940.8^b	30.1 ± 33.7^b
Noodles	35.5 ± 958.8	42.4 ± 964.6∗	28.6 ±9 51.5	0.003	58.3 ± 978.1^a	43.9 ± 963.2^b	31.9 ± 50.9^bc
Bakeries/snacks	28.1 ±9 58.4	27.1 ± 958.3	29.1 ± 958.5	0.658	43.5 ± 976.2^a	49.9 ± 977.4^a	21.8 ± 54.3^b
Beverages/teas	24.0 ± 960.2	18.5 ± 934.2	29.5 ±9 77.6∗	0.021	26.5 ± 957^abc	33.6 ± 100.7^a	29.7 ± 56.4^ab
One-dish meals	22.7 ±9 37.5	22.4 ± 940.1	22.9 ± 934.7	0.850	37.8 ± 947.1^a	25.2 ± 935.9^b	23.3 ± 39.7^bc
Cooked rice	15.0 ±9 16.0	14.9 ± 913.3	15.1 ± 918.3	0.856	98.4 ± 996.8^c	10.6 ± 910.4^c	14.6 ± 13.7^b
Others	14.1 ± 200.2	95.0 ± 952.6	23.1 ± 9278.1	0.253	91.5 ± 996.8	40.0 ± 433.1	99.3 ± 55.8
Roasted foods	13.8 ± 930.1	14.3 ± 926.4	13.2 ± 933.5	0.643	16.3 ±9 44.8	10.5 ± 922.4	12.8 ± 22.5
Steamed foods	11.8 ±9 29.6	12.6 ±927.7	10.9 ± 931.3	0.474	98.4 ± 921.8^b	96.8 ±9 18.2^b	18.0 ± 41.4^a
Pan-fried foods	10.9 ± 919.0	11.1 ±9 17.8	10.6 ±9 20.2	0.759	10.7 ± 920.6	99.5 ±9 15.0	12.2 ± 19.1
Vegetables/seaweeds	10.6 ± 920.1	99.7 ± 920.2	11.4 ± 919.9	0.291	94.6 ± 911.8^c	97.7 ± 917.2^bc	12.2 ± 23.5^ab
Braised foods	10.2 ± 918.0	11.5 ± 918.6	98.8 ± 917.2	0.062	96.2 ± 915.2^c	98.2 ±9 13.2^bc	11.3 ± 18.4^ab
Fruits	10.2 ± 913.6	98.9 ±9 12.9	11.4 ±9 14.1∗	0.021	93.3 ±99 6.5^c	95.8 ± 998.1^c	10.4 ± 12.6^b
Fried foods	98.5 ± 918.0	98.8 ±9 18.6	98.3 ± 917.3	0.757	14.6 ±9 22.4^a	11.2 ±9 18.4^ab	98.4 ± 15.2^bc
Grains/potatoes	97.4 ±9 56.2	98.3 ± 977.8	96.5 ± 916.6	0.683	93.0 ± 915.2	94.9 ± 917.0	94.6 ± 15.4
Beans/nuts/seeds	96.1 ± 915.7	94.6 ± 912.4	97.7 ± 918.3∗	0.014	92.9 ± 999.4^c	93.9 ± 999.7^bc	97.7 ± 19.7^ab
Meat/fish products	94.7 ±9 28.2	94.2 ±9 19.7	95.2 ± 934.6	0.663	92.6 ± 997.2	92.4 ± 999.3	97.2 ± 46.2
Meats/fishes/eggs	94.4 ±9 18.0	94.7 ± 922.6	94.1 ±9 11.6	0.667	92.3 ± 997.7^b	92.3 ± 996.6^b	98.8 ± 32.0^a
Pickled vegetables	93.2 ± 997.7	92.9 ± 997.4	93.6 ± 997.9	0.238	93.2 ± 999.3	93.1 ± 995.5	92.8 ± 96.4
Rice cakes	92.9 ± 914.6	92.2 ± 913.9	93.5 ± 915.4	0.272	90.6 ±99 1.9	92.9 ± 921.2	92.2 ± 96.6
Porridges	92.9 ±9 11.9	92.9 ±9 12.0	92.8 ± 911.9	0.922	91.2 ± 999.9^b	91.1 ± 995.7^b	92.5 ± 99.9^ab
Salted seafoods	92.3 ± 999.5	92.5 ± 999.4	92.2 ±99 9.6	0.631	90.5 ±99 3.3	93.3 ± 912.6	92.3 ±9 7.5
Alcohols	92.1 ±9 95.5	92.6 ± 996.0∗	91.6 ± 995.0	0.021	93.0 ± 997.6^a	91.7 ±99 3.9^ab	93.0 ± 96.0^a
Seasonings	91.7 ± 994.2	91.9 ± 994.7	91.5 ±99 3.7	0.265	91.6 ±99 3.6	91.4 ±99 2.8	91.9 ± 94.5
Sugars/sweeteners	90.9 ± 995.7	91.2 ± 997.5	90.6 ± 993.0	0.167	91.8 ±99 6.1	91.2 ± 997.5	91.3 ± 98.3
Oils/fats	90.0 ± 990.1	90.0 ± 990.1	90.0 ± 990.1	0.302	90.0 ±99 0.1	90.0 ± 990.2	90.0 ± 90.1

Table 2.

continued

		P-value ²⁾	Region				P-value ²⁾
50∼59	60∼69		Capital	Chung-cheong	Gyeong-sang	Jeolla
(n = 128)	(n = 128)		(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)	(n = 160)
58.9 ± 102.0	64.7 ± 101.1	0.205	76.3 ± 125.3	64.6 ± 89.6	78.1 ± 124.5	57.6 ± 991.8	0.280
57.7 ± 966.6^bc	81.1 ± 100.2^a	0.001	41.5 ± 950.7^c	58.7 ± 62.4^b	48.3 ±9 54.0^bc	74.1 ± 997.2^a	0.001
55.5 ± 969.0	56.2 ± 994.2	0.384	50.0 ± 977.4	61.3 ± 72.7	48.4 ±9 59.1	52.7 ± 972.2	0.372
48.6 ± 986.7^ab	67.1 ± 116.1^a	0.002	27.2 ± 951.1^c	51.8 ± 77.7^ab	58.4 ± 113.4^a	36.4 ± 984.9^bc	0.004
44.8 ±9 30.4^b	52.3 ± 937.7^a	0.001	33.7 ± 922.6^b	46.2 ± 38.6^a	34.0 ± 926.7^b	39.8 ± 935.4^ab	0.001
45.3 ± 946.6^a	47.4 ± 958.7^a	0.001	30.8 ±9 39.8	40.2 ± 54.9	33.3 ±9 39.9	38.1 ± 947.7	0.238
27.3 ± 949.9^cd	16.1 ± 933.9^d	0.001	35.2 ±9 53.9^ab	46.9 ± 67.8^a	31.6 ± 952.9^b	28.3 ± 958.1^b	0.028
15.7 ±9 27.3^b	99.7 ± 919.6^b	0.001	33.4 ± 955.0	20.4 ± 38.6	25.6 ± 950.5	33.0 ± 980.6	0.138
17.5 ±9 27.7^bc	12.6 ± 923.9^c	0.030	24.4 ± 946.0	18.9 ± 32.2	27.9 ± 953.0	24.7 ± 992.4	0.611
11.7 ± 929.1^d	15.2 ± 927.0^cd	0.001	19.6 ± 936.0	18.4 ± 29.9	28.1 ± 940.8	24.6 ± 941.7	0.070
16.3 ± 914.4^b	24.9 ± 923.9^a	0.001	15.3 ± 915.2	14.4 ± 13.0	14.7 ± 921.4	15.5 ± 912.9	0.935
99.8 ± 957.0	99.7 ± 982.1	0.586	12.8 ±9 89.6	90.8 ± 94.8	98.2 ± 945.9	34.6 ± 387.6	0.472
13.6 ± 923.7	15.7 ± 931.0	0.544	97.3 ± 913.5^b	16.9 ± 42.3^a	12.5 ±9 24.1^ab	18.4 ± 931.9^a	0.004
11.4 ± 931.5^ab	14.2 ±9 28.3^ab	0.018	97.7 ± 920.6^b	12.6 ± 31.7^ab	16.8 ± 938.8^a	99.9 ±9 23.0^b	0.037
99.6 ± 917.8	12.2 ± 921.8	0.639	99.6 ± 915.8	13.2 ± 19.9	12.0 ± 921.5	98.6 ± 918.1	0.117
12.0 ± 918.8^ab	16.3 ± 924.5^a	0.001	97.9 ± 916.9^b	99.8 ± 16.1^b	17.4 ± 929.5^a	97.2 ± 911.7^b	0.001
11.7 ±9 17.9^ab	13.4 ± 922.9^a	0.009	98.6 ± 913.6	10.1 ± 20.5	10.1 ± 916.5	11.8 ± 920.4	0.478
15.1 ±9 15.4^a	16.3 ±9 17.2^a	0.001	10.2 ± 912.7^ab	98.9 ± 12.0^b	12.7 ± 915.3^a	98.9 ±9 13.8^b	0.040
95.6 ± 917.3^bc	92.9 ± 913.0^c	0.001	98.9 ± 915.5	11.6 ± 23.0	97.1 ± 914.3	96.7 ± 917.5	0.058
16.8 ± 120.5	97.8 ± 922.3	0.290	97.5 ±9 25.4	94.4 ± 13.8	95.0 ± 910.7	12.7 ± 108.2	0.541
97.0 ± 915.0^ab	99.1 ± 920.3^a	0.006	97.7 ± 917.4^ab	93.5 ± 98.9^c	99.1 ± 920.7^a	94.3 ± 912.5^bc	0.003
96.2 ± 929.4	95.0 ± 928.8	0.583	91.4 ±99 5.2^b	92.3 ± 15.5^b	94.0 ± 918.0^b	11.1 ± 950.4^a	0.009
95.1 ± 917.4^ab	93.7 ±9 12.8^b	0.018	92.5 ± 996.9	93.6 ± 12.1	94.5 ± 912.1	97.2 ± 930.7	0.118
93.3 ±99 7.0	93.8 ±99 9.4	0.868	93.1 ± 996.2	93.8 ± 10.0	93.4 ± 996.7	92.7 ± 997.3	0.580
94.8 ±9 22.9	93.8 ± 997.0	0.183	92.6 ±9 19.0	93.2 ±9 6.4	94.0 ±9 20.8	91.6 ± 994.8	0.527
94.0 ±9 12.8^ab	95.5 ± 917.5^a	0.010	95.7 ±9 16.2^a	91.1 ± 97.0^b	92.8 ± 911.8^b	91.9 ± 910.4^b	0.003
92.6 ±9 11.4	92.9 ± 999.8	0.147	91.7 ± 995.5	92.2 ±9 7.7	92.0 ±9 10.6	93.5 ± 912.7	0.356
91.6 ±99 4.4^ab	91.1 ± 994.8^b	0.012	91.7 ±99 4.8	92.1 ± 94.9	92.0 ± 995.0	92.5 ± 997.1	0.589
92.3 ±99 5.4	91.2 ± 994.2	0.232	91.6 ±99 4.4	91.2 ± 93.6	92.2 ± 995.1	91.8 ± 993.5	0.198
90.0 ±99 0.2	90.1 ± 990.9	0.063	91.2 ± 998.1	91.3 ±9 5.4	90.4 ± 992.1	90.6 ± 995.7	0.435
90.0 ±99 0.0	90.0 ± 990.0	0.553	90.0 ± 990.2	90.0 ±9 0.0	90.0 ± 990.1	90.0 ± 990.0	0.685

Table 3.

Comparison of top 20 dishes contributing for dietary calcium intake by gender, age and region

Rank	Gender				Age (years)
Rank	Male (n = 320)		Female (n = 320)		19∼29 (n = 128)		30∼39 (n = 128)		40∼49 (n = 128)
1	Soups	11.6¹⁾	Milks/dairy	14.3	Milks/dairy	17.0	Milks/dairy	14.0	Soups	11.4
			products		products		products
2	Milks/dairy	11.0¹⁾	Stir-fired	9.4	Noodles	11.7	Bakeries/	9.0	Stir-fired	10.8
	products		foods				snacks		foods
3	Stir-fired	9.9¹⁾	Soups	8.6	Stir-fired	8.8	Stir-fired	9.0	Milks/dairy	10.7
	foods				foods		foods		products
4	Stews	9.5¹⁾	Kimchi	6.4	Bakeries/snacks	8.7	Noodles	7.9	Kimchi	7.6
5	Kimchi	7.6¹⁾	Stews	6.2	One-dish	7.6	Soups	7.7	Stews	7.3
					meals
6	Noodles	7.5¹⁾	Seasoned	6.1	Soups	6.7	Others	7.2	Noodles	5.7
			vegetables
7	Seasoned	6.9¹⁾	Beverages/	5.5	Stews	5.5	Beverages/	6.1	Seasoned	5.4
	vegetables		teas				teas		vegetables
8	Bakeries/	4.8¹⁾	Bakeries/	5.5	Beverages/	5.3	Stews	6.0	Beverages/	5.3
	snacks		snacks		teas				teas
9	One-dish	4.0¹⁾	Noodles	5.4	Seasoned	4.9	Seasoned	5.5	One-dish	4.2
	meals				vegetables		vegetables		meals
10	Beverages/	3.3¹⁾	Others	4.3	Kimchi	4.6	Kimchi	5.4	Bakeries/	3.9
	teas								snacks
11	Cooked	2.6¹⁾	One-dish	4.3	Roasted	3.3	One-dish	4.5	Steamed	3.2
	rice		meals		foods		meals		foods
12	Roasted foods	2.5¹⁾	Cooked rice	2.8	Fried foods	2.9	Fried foods	2.0	Cooked rice	2.6
13	Steamed foods	2.2¹⁾	Roasted foods	2.5	Pan-fried foods	2.1	Cooked rice	1.9	Roasted foods	2.3
14	Braised	2.0¹⁾	Fruits	2.1	Cooked	1.7	Roasted	1.9	Pan-fried	2.2
	foods				rice		foods		foods
15	Pan-fried	2.0¹⁾	Vegetables/	2.1	Steamed	1.7	Pan-fried	1.7	Vegetables/	2.2
	foods		seaweeds		foods		foods		seaweeds
16	Vegetables/	1.7¹⁾	Steamed	2.0	Braised	1.2	Braised	1.5	Braised	2.0
	seaweeds		foods		foods		foods		foods
17	Fruits	1.6¹⁾	Pan-fried	2.0	Vegetables/	0.9	Vegetables/	1.4	Fruits	1.9
			foods		seaweeds		seaweeds
18	Fried foods	1.6¹⁾	Braised foods	1.6	Fruits	0.7	Steamed	1.2	Others	1.7
							foods
19	Grains/	1.5¹⁾	Fried foods	1.6	Picked	0.6	Fruits	1.0	Meats/	1.6
	potatoes				vegetables				fishes/eggs
20	Others	0.9¹⁾	Beans/nuts/	1.4	Alcohols	0.6	Grains/	0.9	Fried	1.5
			seeds				potatoes		foods

¹⁾Values are % of total calcium intake from each dish groups.

Table 3.

continued