, 서선희2),†
, Sunhee Seo2),†
1)이화여자대학교 식품영양학과 박사과정
2)이화여자대학교 식품영양학과 교수
1)Ph.D. Student, Department of Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
2)Professor, Department of Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
© 2026 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
None.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in KNHANES database at https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr.
| Category | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | < 0.001 | ||||
| Male | 101 (57.0) | 69 (46.3) | 36 (22.5) | 206 (42.9) | |
| Female | 86 (43.0) | 76 (53.7) | 119 (77.5) | 281 (57.1) | |
| Age (year) | < 0.001 | ||||
| < 75 | 169 (91.9) | 53 (37.8) | 75 (46.8) | 297 (61.9) | |
| ≥ 75 | 18 (8.1) | 92 (62.2) | 80 (53.2) | 190 (38.1) | |
| Area of residence | 0.788 | ||||
| Urban | 143 (76.6) | 118 (80.4) | 119 (77.8) | 380 (78.1) | |
| Rural area | 44 (23.4) | 27 (19.6) | 36 (22.2) | 107 (21.9) | |
| Education level (n = 469) | 0.941 | ||||
| ≤ Elementary school | 58 (24.1) | 44 (22.7) | 51 (23.6) | 153 (23.6) | |
| Middle school | 21 (8.7) | 21 (10.7) | 12 (10.4) | 54 (9.9) | |
| High school | 55 (34.9) | 31 (29.9) | 36 (29.3) | 122 (31.7) | |
| ≥ College | 49 (32.2) | 43 (36.7) | 48 (36.7) | 140 (34.9) | |
| Marital status | 0.244 | ||||
| Married | 130 (67.9) | 95 (60.2) | 99 (58.2) | 324 (62.6) | |
| Single | 57 (32.1) | 50 (39.8) | 56 (41.8) | 163 (37.4) | |
| National basic livelihood security recipient | 0.743 | ||||
| Yes | 9 (4.1) | 6 (2.9) | 8 (4.4) | 23 (3.9) | |
| No | 178 (95.9) | 139 (97.1) | 147 (95.6) | 464 (96.1) | |
| Personal income quartile | 0.497 | ||||
| Low | 40 (20.3) | 37 (22.7) | 36 (19.8) | 113 (20.8) | |
| Middle-low | 60 (33.8) | 29 (21.8) | 42 (29.1) | 131 (28.8) | |
| Middle-high | 41 (19.8) | 40 (28.0) | 40 (26.4) | 121 (24.3) | |
| High | 46 (26.1) | 39 (27.5) | 37 (24.7) | 122 (26.1) | |
| Monthly household income (1,000 KRW) | 508.79 ± 31.11 | 532.00 ± 36.50 | 513.84 ± 37.01 | 518.21 ± 19.48 | 0.891 |
| Category | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.65 ± 0.43 | 22.91 ± 0.47 | 23.02 ± 0.40 | 23.19 ± 0.25 | 0.553 |
| Self-rated health status (n = 470) | 0.695 | ||||
| Very good | 4 (2.4) | 5 (3.6) | 8 (5.8) | 17 (3.8) | |
| Good | 7 (2.8) | 4 (2.5) | 3 (2.0) | 14 (2.4) | |
| Moderate | 20 (9.8) | 13 (6.9) | 17 (11.0) | 50 (9.3) | |
| Poor | 90 (46.9) | 74 (55.1) | 76 (49.7) | 240 (50.1) | |
| Very poor | 48 (27.2) | 36 (24.3) | 43 (26.8) | 127 (26.4) | |
| Average2) | 3.34 ± 0.08 | 3.29 ± 0.06 | 3.23 ± 0.07 | 3.29 ± 0.04 | 0.565 |
| Chewing problems (n = 390) | 0.173 | ||||
| Very uncomfortable | 4 (1.1) | 5 (3.1) | 4 (2.3) | 13 (2.1) | |
| Uncomfortable | 27 (14.8) | 24 (17.1) | 19 (12.8) | 70 (14.8) | |
| Moderate | 25 (18.5) | 13 (12.6) | 13 (9.6) | 51 (14.0) | |
| Not uncomfortable | 42 (29.5) | 25 (23.8) | 34 (21.7) | 101 (25.4) | |
| Not uncomfortable at all | 53 (36.0) | 48 (43.3) | 54 (53.7) | 155 (43.7) | |
| Average2) | 3.85 ± 0.09 | 3.87 ± 0.12 | 4.12 ± 0.11 | 3.95 ± 0.06 | 0.116 |
n (%) or Mean ± SE.
WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group; BMI, body mass index.
1)P-values were determined by chi-square test for categorical variables and by complex-sample general linear model for continuous variables.
2)5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate better self-rated health or less chewing difficulty.
| Food groups | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grains (g) | 80.55 ± 12.27 | 72.13 ± 3.80 | 96.04 ± 22.97 | 82.91 ± 5.72 | 0.156 |
| Potatoes and starch (g) | 12.33 ± 1.39a | 1.70 ± 1.00ab | 6.85 ± 1.71b | 6.96 ± 0.25 | < 0.001 |
| Sugars (g) | 2.97 ± 0.46a | 0.79 ± 0.73ab | 0.69 ± 0.54b | 1.82 ± 0.26 | 0.016 |
| Beans (g) | 12.61 ± 1.50 | 11.71 ± 2.97 | 13.68 ± 6.51 | 12.67 ± 3.31 | 0.703 |
| Seeds and nuts (g) | 0.76 ± 0.16 | 0.51 ± 0.14 | 0.40 ± 0.16 | 0.55 ± 0.08 | 0.163 |
| Vegetables (g) | 125.80 ± 16.54 | 111.54 ± 12.49 | 117.99 ± 18.05 | 118.44 ± 7.43 | 0.829 |
| Mushrooms (g) | 9.72 ± 4.02 | 13.14 ± 0.54 | 8.21 ± 5.74 | 10.36 ± 3.08 | 0.415 |
| Fruits (g) | 27.50 ± 2.52 | 24.56 ± 2.53 | 18.78 ± 2.95 | 24.64 ± 1.60 | 0.201 |
| Meats (g) | 59.28 ± 7.56a | 31.68 ± 1.28b | 13.78 ± 4.62c | 34.91 ± 2.19 | 0.003 |
| Eggs (g) | 4.51 ± 2.08 | 4.61 ± 0.00 | 79.31 ± 23.69 | 29.48 ± 7.76 | 0.105 |
| Seafoods (g) | 5.45 ± 6.33a | 29.93 ± 6.58a | 7.07 ± 6.58b | 14.15 ± 2.88 | 0.023 |
| Seaweeds (g) | 19.56 ± 8.21 | 33.40 ± 2.16 | 25.52 ± 1.70 | 26.16 ± 4.02 | 0.412 |
| Dairy products (g) | 24.96 ± 2.57ab | 31.52 ± 2.59a | 21.51 ± 3.04b | 26.10 ± 1.72 | < 0.001 |
| Drinks (g) | 82.97 ± 9.99a | 79.55 ± 10.01a | 52.53 ± 11.77b | 73.02 ± 6.61 | < 0.001 |
| Nutrient intakes | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy (kcal) | 599.82 ± 41.23 | 595.85 ± 32.02 | 607.63 ± 53.53 | 601.10 ± 23.39 | > 0.999 |
| Water (g) | 252.11 ± 13.22 | 251.74 ± 13.26 | 219.04 ± 14.03 | 240.96 ± 6.91 | 0.128 |
| Carbohydrates (g) | 88.40 ± 2.83 | 92.48 ± 1.89 | 96.89 ± 3.93 | 92.59 ± 1.73 | 0.163 |
| Protein (g) | 25.52 ± 1.08a | 23.30 ± 0.63b | 21.17 ± 0.99b | 23.33 ± 0.53 | 0.008 |
| Fat (g) | 15.81 ± 1.05 | 14.77 ± 0.77 | 13.75 ± 1.50 | 14.77 ± 0.66 | 0.507 |
| Energy contribution (%) | |||||
| Carbohydrate | 62.05 ± 1.35 | 63.28 ± 1.25 | 66.69 ± 1.55 | 64.01 ± 0.79 | 0.069 |
| Protein | 16.29 ± 0.55a | 15.07 ± 0.43ab | 13.87 ± 0.55b | 15.08 ± 0.28 | 0.007 |
| Fat | 20.05 ± 1.14 | 20.24 ± 1.06 | 18.16 ± 1.36 | 19.48 ± 0.65 | 0.458 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 7.12 ± 0.40 | 7.41 ± 0.33 | 6.95 ± 0.35 | 7.16 ± 0.21 | 0.635 |
| Sugar (g) | 11.61 ± 1.37 | 11.08 ± 1.16 | 10.54 ± 1.45 | 11.08 ± 0.75 | > 0.999 |
| Calcium (mg) | 135.00 ± 11.25 | 152.16 ± 12.56 | 135.68 ± 12.75 | 140.95 ± 6.62 | 0.744 |
| Iron (mg) | 3.72 ± 0.23 | 3.72 ± 0.28 | 3.03 ± 0.19 | 3.49 ± 0.11 | 0.061 |
| Phosphorus (mg) | 340.26 ± 11.17a | 333.77 ± 9.49ab | 300.55 ± 12.19b | 324.86 ± 5.72 | 0.049 |
| Sodium (mg) | 1,196.26 ± 65.72 | 1,210.45 ± 55.60 | 1,160.69 ± 81.03 | 1,189.13 ± 39.88 | > 0.999 |
| Potassium (mg) | 774.76 ± 35.99 | 796.11 ± 32.37 | 704.86 ± 41.62 | 758.58 ± 18.47 | 0.122 |
| Magnesium (mg) | 95.41 ± 4.03 | 98.03 ± 4.21 | 88.38 ± 4.15 | 93.94 ± 2.22 | 0.204 |
| Vitamin A (μg RAE) | 127.46 ± 14.73 | 121.72 ± 12.08 | 93.71 ± 11.57 | 114.30 ± 8.11 | 0.131 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 0.49 ± 0.03a | 0.39 ± 0.02b | 0.34 ± 0.03b | 0.41 ± 0.02 | 0.001 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 0.48 ± 0.03 | 0.47 ± 0.03 | 0.41 ± 0.03 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | 0.149 |
| Niacin (mg) | 4.15 ± 0.26a | 3.64 ± 0.18ab | 3.14 ± 0.22b | 3.65 ± 0.12 | 0.012 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 14.35 ± 1.84 | 15.94 ± 2.36 | 14.87 ± 2.62 | 15.05 ± 1.21 | > 0.999 |
| Vitamin D (μg) | 1.06 ± 0.24 | 1.09 ± 0.20 | 0.88 ± 0.29 | 1.01 ± 0.13 | > 0.999 |
| Vitamin E (mg) | 2.23 ± 0.18 | 2.11 ± 0.09 | 1.89 ± 0.13 | 2.08 ± 0.07 | 0.251 |
| Category | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NAR | |||||
| Carbohydrates | 1.77 ± 0.09a | 2.17 ± 0.15ab | 2.15 ± 0.13b | 2.03 ± 0.06 | 0.039 |
| Protein | 0.80 ± 0.03 | 0.85 ± 0.02 | 0.81 ± 0.03 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 0.240 |
| Calcium | 0.43 ± 0.03 | 0.48 ± 0.04 | 0.45 ± 0.03 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | 0.505 |
| Iron | 0.72 ± 0.03 | 0.83 ± 0.03 | 0.79 ± 0.03 | 0.78 ± 0.02 | 0.075 |
| Phosphorus | 0.87 ± 0.02 | 0.91 ± 0.02 | 0.84 ± 0.03 | 0.87 ± 0.01 | 0.095 |
| Vitamin A | 0.39 ± 0.05 | 0.42 ± 0.04 | 0.49 ± 0.05 | 0.43 ± 0.03 | 0.296 |
| Thiamine | 0.78 ± 0.03ab | 0.86 ± 0.02a | 0.75 ± 0.03b | 0.80 ± 0.02 | 0.012 |
| Riboflavin | 0.66 ± 0.04 | 0.73 ± 0.03 | 0.70 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.02 | 0.367 |
| Niacin | 0.60 ± 0.03a | 0.69 ± 0.03b | 0.57 ± 0.03a | 0.62 ± 0.02 | 0.009 |
| Folate | 0.59 ± 0.03 | 0.63 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.04 | 0.64 ± 0.02 | 0.060 |
| Vitamin C | 0.32 ± 0.04 | 0.40 ± 0.04 | 0.44 ± 0.04 | 0.38 ± 0.02 | 0.050 |
| MAR | 0.77 ± 0.03 | 0.87 ± 0.04 | 0.85 ± 0.04 | 0.83 ± 0.02 | 0.100 |
Adjusted Mean ± SE.
NAR, nutrient adequacy ratio; MAR, mean adequacy ratio; WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group.
1)P-values were obtained using a complex-sample adjusted for total energy intake, sex, and age.
a,bDifferent letters indicate statistically significant differences according to the Bonferroni test.
| Category | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | < 0.001 | ||||
| Male | 101 (57.0) | 69 (46.3) | 36 (22.5) | 206 (42.9) | |
| Female | 86 (43.0) | 76 (53.7) | 119 (77.5) | 281 (57.1) | |
| Age (year) | < 0.001 | ||||
| < 75 | 169 (91.9) | 53 (37.8) | 75 (46.8) | 297 (61.9) | |
| ≥ 75 | 18 (8.1) | 92 (62.2) | 80 (53.2) | 190 (38.1) | |
| Area of residence | 0.788 | ||||
| Urban | 143 (76.6) | 118 (80.4) | 119 (77.8) | 380 (78.1) | |
| Rural area | 44 (23.4) | 27 (19.6) | 36 (22.2) | 107 (21.9) | |
| Education level (n = 469) | 0.941 | ||||
| ≤ Elementary school | 58 (24.1) | 44 (22.7) | 51 (23.6) | 153 (23.6) | |
| Middle school | 21 (8.7) | 21 (10.7) | 12 (10.4) | 54 (9.9) | |
| High school | 55 (34.9) | 31 (29.9) | 36 (29.3) | 122 (31.7) | |
| ≥ College | 49 (32.2) | 43 (36.7) | 48 (36.7) | 140 (34.9) | |
| Marital status | 0.244 | ||||
| Married | 130 (67.9) | 95 (60.2) | 99 (58.2) | 324 (62.6) | |
| Single | 57 (32.1) | 50 (39.8) | 56 (41.8) | 163 (37.4) | |
| National basic livelihood security recipient | 0.743 | ||||
| Yes | 9 (4.1) | 6 (2.9) | 8 (4.4) | 23 (3.9) | |
| No | 178 (95.9) | 139 (97.1) | 147 (95.6) | 464 (96.1) | |
| Personal income quartile | 0.497 | ||||
| Low | 40 (20.3) | 37 (22.7) | 36 (19.8) | 113 (20.8) | |
| Middle-low | 60 (33.8) | 29 (21.8) | 42 (29.1) | 131 (28.8) | |
| Middle-high | 41 (19.8) | 40 (28.0) | 40 (26.4) | 121 (24.3) | |
| High | 46 (26.1) | 39 (27.5) | 37 (24.7) | 122 (26.1) | |
| Monthly household income (1,000 KRW) | 508.79 ± 31.11 | 532.00 ± 36.50 | 513.84 ± 37.01 | 518.21 ± 19.48 | 0.891 |
| Category | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.65 ± 0.43 | 22.91 ± 0.47 | 23.02 ± 0.40 | 23.19 ± 0.25 | 0.553 |
| Self-rated health status (n = 470) | 0.695 | ||||
| Very good | 4 (2.4) | 5 (3.6) | 8 (5.8) | 17 (3.8) | |
| Good | 7 (2.8) | 4 (2.5) | 3 (2.0) | 14 (2.4) | |
| Moderate | 20 (9.8) | 13 (6.9) | 17 (11.0) | 50 (9.3) | |
| Poor | 90 (46.9) | 74 (55.1) | 76 (49.7) | 240 (50.1) | |
| Very poor | 48 (27.2) | 36 (24.3) | 43 (26.8) | 127 (26.4) | |
| Average |
3.34 ± 0.08 | 3.29 ± 0.06 | 3.23 ± 0.07 | 3.29 ± 0.04 | 0.565 |
| Chewing problems (n = 390) | 0.173 | ||||
| Very uncomfortable | 4 (1.1) | 5 (3.1) | 4 (2.3) | 13 (2.1) | |
| Uncomfortable | 27 (14.8) | 24 (17.1) | 19 (12.8) | 70 (14.8) | |
| Moderate | 25 (18.5) | 13 (12.6) | 13 (9.6) | 51 (14.0) | |
| Not uncomfortable | 42 (29.5) | 25 (23.8) | 34 (21.7) | 101 (25.4) | |
| Not uncomfortable at all | 53 (36.0) | 48 (43.3) | 54 (53.7) | 155 (43.7) | |
| Average |
3.85 ± 0.09 | 3.87 ± 0.12 | 4.12 ± 0.11 | 3.95 ± 0.06 | 0.116 |
| Food groups | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grains (g) | 80.55 ± 12.27 | 72.13 ± 3.80 | 96.04 ± 22.97 | 82.91 ± 5.72 | 0.156 |
| Potatoes and starch (g) | 12.33 ± 1.39 |
1.70 ± 1.00 |
6.85 ± 1.71 |
6.96 ± 0.25 | < 0.001 |
| Sugars (g) | 2.97 ± 0.46 |
0.79 ± 0.73 |
0.69 ± 0.54 |
1.82 ± 0.26 | 0.016 |
| Beans (g) | 12.61 ± 1.50 | 11.71 ± 2.97 | 13.68 ± 6.51 | 12.67 ± 3.31 | 0.703 |
| Seeds and nuts (g) | 0.76 ± 0.16 | 0.51 ± 0.14 | 0.40 ± 0.16 | 0.55 ± 0.08 | 0.163 |
| Vegetables (g) | 125.80 ± 16.54 | 111.54 ± 12.49 | 117.99 ± 18.05 | 118.44 ± 7.43 | 0.829 |
| Mushrooms (g) | 9.72 ± 4.02 | 13.14 ± 0.54 | 8.21 ± 5.74 | 10.36 ± 3.08 | 0.415 |
| Fruits (g) | 27.50 ± 2.52 | 24.56 ± 2.53 | 18.78 ± 2.95 | 24.64 ± 1.60 | 0.201 |
| Meats (g) | 59.28 ± 7.56 |
31.68 ± 1.28 |
13.78 ± 4.62 |
34.91 ± 2.19 | 0.003 |
| Eggs (g) | 4.51 ± 2.08 | 4.61 ± 0.00 | 79.31 ± 23.69 | 29.48 ± 7.76 | 0.105 |
| Seafoods (g) | 5.45 ± 6.33 |
29.93 ± 6.58 |
7.07 ± 6.58 |
14.15 ± 2.88 | 0.023 |
| Seaweeds (g) | 19.56 ± 8.21 | 33.40 ± 2.16 | 25.52 ± 1.70 | 26.16 ± 4.02 | 0.412 |
| Dairy products (g) | 24.96 ± 2.57 |
31.52 ± 2.59 |
21.51 ± 3.04 |
26.10 ± 1.72 | < 0.001 |
| Drinks (g) | 82.97 ± 9.99 |
79.55 ± 10.01 |
52.53 ± 11.77 |
73.02 ± 6.61 | < 0.001 |
| Nutrient intakes | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy (kcal) | 599.82 ± 41.23 | 595.85 ± 32.02 | 607.63 ± 53.53 | 601.10 ± 23.39 | > 0.999 |
| Water (g) | 252.11 ± 13.22 | 251.74 ± 13.26 | 219.04 ± 14.03 | 240.96 ± 6.91 | 0.128 |
| Carbohydrates (g) | 88.40 ± 2.83 | 92.48 ± 1.89 | 96.89 ± 3.93 | 92.59 ± 1.73 | 0.163 |
| Protein (g) | 25.52 ± 1.08 |
23.30 ± 0.63 |
21.17 ± 0.99 |
23.33 ± 0.53 | 0.008 |
| Fat (g) | 15.81 ± 1.05 | 14.77 ± 0.77 | 13.75 ± 1.50 | 14.77 ± 0.66 | 0.507 |
| Energy contribution (%) | |||||
| Carbohydrate | 62.05 ± 1.35 | 63.28 ± 1.25 | 66.69 ± 1.55 | 64.01 ± 0.79 | 0.069 |
| Protein | 16.29 ± 0.55 |
15.07 ± 0.43 |
13.87 ± 0.55 |
15.08 ± 0.28 | 0.007 |
| Fat | 20.05 ± 1.14 | 20.24 ± 1.06 | 18.16 ± 1.36 | 19.48 ± 0.65 | 0.458 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 7.12 ± 0.40 | 7.41 ± 0.33 | 6.95 ± 0.35 | 7.16 ± 0.21 | 0.635 |
| Sugar (g) | 11.61 ± 1.37 | 11.08 ± 1.16 | 10.54 ± 1.45 | 11.08 ± 0.75 | > 0.999 |
| Calcium (mg) | 135.00 ± 11.25 | 152.16 ± 12.56 | 135.68 ± 12.75 | 140.95 ± 6.62 | 0.744 |
| Iron (mg) | 3.72 ± 0.23 | 3.72 ± 0.28 | 3.03 ± 0.19 | 3.49 ± 0.11 | 0.061 |
| Phosphorus (mg) | 340.26 ± 11.17 |
333.77 ± 9.49 |
300.55 ± 12.19 |
324.86 ± 5.72 | 0.049 |
| Sodium (mg) | 1,196.26 ± 65.72 | 1,210.45 ± 55.60 | 1,160.69 ± 81.03 | 1,189.13 ± 39.88 | > 0.999 |
| Potassium (mg) | 774.76 ± 35.99 | 796.11 ± 32.37 | 704.86 ± 41.62 | 758.58 ± 18.47 | 0.122 |
| Magnesium (mg) | 95.41 ± 4.03 | 98.03 ± 4.21 | 88.38 ± 4.15 | 93.94 ± 2.22 | 0.204 |
| Vitamin A (μg RAE) | 127.46 ± 14.73 | 121.72 ± 12.08 | 93.71 ± 11.57 | 114.30 ± 8.11 | 0.131 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 0.49 ± 0.03 |
0.39 ± 0.02 |
0.34 ± 0.03 |
0.41 ± 0.02 | 0.001 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 0.48 ± 0.03 | 0.47 ± 0.03 | 0.41 ± 0.03 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | 0.149 |
| Niacin (mg) | 4.15 ± 0.26 |
3.64 ± 0.18 |
3.14 ± 0.22 |
3.65 ± 0.12 | 0.012 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 14.35 ± 1.84 | 15.94 ± 2.36 | 14.87 ± 2.62 | 15.05 ± 1.21 | > 0.999 |
| Vitamin D (μg) | 1.06 ± 0.24 | 1.09 ± 0.20 | 0.88 ± 0.29 | 1.01 ± 0.13 | > 0.999 |
| Vitamin E (mg) | 2.23 ± 0.18 | 2.11 ± 0.09 | 1.89 ± 0.13 | 2.08 ± 0.07 | 0.251 |
| Category | WP (n = 187) | WC (n = 145) | RI (n = 155) | Total (n = 487) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NAR | |||||
| Carbohydrates | 1.77 ± 0.09 |
2.17 ± 0.15 |
2.15 ± 0.13 |
2.03 ± 0.06 | 0.039 |
| Protein | 0.80 ± 0.03 | 0.85 ± 0.02 | 0.81 ± 0.03 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 0.240 |
| Calcium | 0.43 ± 0.03 | 0.48 ± 0.04 | 0.45 ± 0.03 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | 0.505 |
| Iron | 0.72 ± 0.03 | 0.83 ± 0.03 | 0.79 ± 0.03 | 0.78 ± 0.02 | 0.075 |
| Phosphorus | 0.87 ± 0.02 | 0.91 ± 0.02 | 0.84 ± 0.03 | 0.87 ± 0.01 | 0.095 |
| Vitamin A | 0.39 ± 0.05 | 0.42 ± 0.04 | 0.49 ± 0.05 | 0.43 ± 0.03 | 0.296 |
| Thiamine | 0.78 ± 0.03 |
0.86 ± 0.02 |
0.75 ± 0.03 |
0.80 ± 0.02 | 0.012 |
| Riboflavin | 0.66 ± 0.04 | 0.73 ± 0.03 | 0.70 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.02 | 0.367 |
| Niacin | 0.60 ± 0.03 |
0.69 ± 0.03 |
0.57 ± 0.03 |
0.62 ± 0.02 | 0.009 |
| Folate | 0.59 ± 0.03 | 0.63 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.04 | 0.64 ± 0.02 | 0.060 |
| Vitamin C | 0.32 ± 0.04 | 0.40 ± 0.04 | 0.44 ± 0.04 | 0.38 ± 0.02 | 0.050 |
| MAR | 0.77 ± 0.03 | 0.87 ± 0.04 | 0.85 ± 0.04 | 0.83 ± 0.02 | 0.100 |
n (%) or Mean ± SE. WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group.
n (%) or Mean ± SE. WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group; BMI, body mass index. 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate better self-rated health or less chewing difficulty.
Adjusted Mean ± SE WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences according to the Bonferroni test.
Adjusted Mean ± SE. WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences according to the Bonferroni test.
Adjusted Mean ± SE. NAR, nutrient adequacy ratio; MAR, mean adequacy ratio; WP, workplace group; WC, welfare center group; RI, religious institution group. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences according to the Bonferroni test.
