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Research Article
Changing patterns and related factors of kimchi consumption among Korean adults: a nationwide cross-sectional analysis of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2024
Hui-Yang Zhao1)orcid, Hyunji Ham2)orcid, Sumin Kim2)orcid, Chang Hyeon Lee3)orcid, Kyungho Ha4)orcid, Sangah Shin5),†orcid
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition 2026;31(3):244-263.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2026.00108
Published online: June 30, 2026

1)Master Student, Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Korea

2)Ph.D. Student, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea

3)Researcher, Science-Culture Convergence Team, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju, Korea

4)Associate Professor, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea

5)Associate Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Korea

†Corresponding author: Sangah Shin Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, 4726 Seodong-daero, Daedeok-myeon, Anseong 17546, Korea Tel: +82-31-670-3259 Fax: +82-31-675-1381 Email: ivory8320@cau.ac.kr
• Received: March 16, 2026   • Revised: April 22, 2026   • Accepted: June 2, 2026

© 2026 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition

This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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  • Objectives
    This study was conducted to analyze long-term trends in kimchi consumption and patterns among Korean adults using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) from 2010 to 2024, and to identify sociodemographic, dietary, and health-related factors associated with recent kimchi consumption.
  • Methods
    Data from the 5th (2010) through 9th (2024) KNHANES were utilized. Trend analysis included 103,267 participants, while factor analysis focused on 14,244 adults aged ≥ 30 years (2022–2024). Changes in consumption form (side dish versus ingredient) and locations were examined. Multiple logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) for meeting the recommended intake (40 g/day).
  • Results
    Over the past 15 years, kimchi consumption among Korean adults has significantly decreased regardless of gender (men: β = –1.53, women: β = –1.31, P for trend < 0.05). The proportion of individuals reporting no kimchi intake on the 24-hour recall day increased from 11.7% in 2010 to 22.7% in 2024. Among young adults (20–39 years), a qualitative shift occurred as consumption transitioned from side dishes to dish ingredients. At-home consumption decreased for all age groups under 60 years. Conversely, eating-out consumption increased for most groups, except for those aged 20–39 years, while school/workplace consumption increased only in the 0–9 years age group. Analysis of the factors associated with meeting the recommended intake revealed that men, older adults, rural residents, married individuals, alcohol consumers, and smokers were more likely to meet the recommendation. Conversely, frequent solo dining or skipping meals were significantly associated with a lower likelihood of meeting the recommendation.
  • Conclusion
    This study confirms a structural shift in the Korean diet. Future strategies for preserving traditional food culture and establishing nutritional policies must be tailored to reflect modern dietary changes, such as an increase in single-person households and the spread of a solo-dining culture.
  • Keywords: kimchi; trends; factor analysis, statistical; feeding behavior; nutrition surveys
Kimchi is a fermented food that epitomizes Korean traditional food culture; its communal preparation practice, kimjang, has been inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity [1]. The nutritional and public health significance of kimchi has also gained broad international recognition following its official recommendation as a beneficial fermented food in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2025–2030, jointly issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Kimchi is prepared primarily from napa cabbage and radish, supplemented with red pepper powder, garlic, ginger, and salted fermented seafood, among other ingredients. The fermentation process generates lactic acid bacteria, and the constituent raw materials contribute dietary fiber, vitamins, and phytochemicals; these bioactive components have been associated with diverse health-promoting effects, including anti-obesity [3], anti-cancer [4], and immune-enhancing properties [5, 6].
However, rapid social structural changes and the progressive Westernization of dietary habits have resulted in marked differences in both the proportion of kimchi consumed within the Korean diet and the overall consumption patterns compared with those of the preceding decades [7]. The rapid increase in single-person households [8], widespread adoption of a solo-dining culture [9], normalization of home meal replacement (HMR) products [10], and continued expansion of the food service industry [11] are the principal drivers of structural change in both the contexts and modes by which kimchi, a cornerstone of the traditional Korean table, is consumed. A general declining trend in kimchi consumption has been reported among Koreans [12, 13]; however, most investigations have been limited to cross-sectional analyses at single time points or historical datasets. Comprehensive long-term trend analyses that incorporate recent sociodemographic and dietary changes, including detailed assessments of consumption patterns, remain limited.
Changes in kimchi consumption extend beyond a simple reduction in intake quantity and encompass qualitative shifts in who consumes kimchi, where it is consumed, and in what form, thereby necessitating a more comprehensive analytical approach. Whereas kimchi was traditionally consumed as a side dish (banchan) in home-based meals, an increasing proportion is now incorporated as an ingredient in prepared dishes in restaurants or in processed foods. These shifts are closely related to broader dietary pattern changes among Korean adults [14] and have been identified as significant contributors to chronic disease risk [15]. Accordingly, stratified analyses of the associations between socioeconomic status, health behaviors, dietary characteristics, and kimchi intake adherence by gender and age group can provide a critical evidence base for identifying populations at high risk for chronic diseases and formulating precise nutrition-oriented individualized nutritional policies [16].
Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze long-term population-level trends in kimchi consumption among Korean adults using Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) data from the 5th survey cycle (2010–2012) to the 9th survey cycle (2022–2024). Specifically, this study examined secular changes in kimchi intake by gender and age group, as well as shifts in consumption patterns by intake form (kimchi as a side dish vs. kimchi as an ingredient in composite dishes) and meal location. Furthermore, using the most recent 3-year data (2022–2024), a multifaceted analysis was conducted to characterize the sociodemographic, dietary, and health behavior factors associated with kimchi consumption, with the aim of elucidating the public health significance of kimchi intake and its policy implications within the context of contemporary dietary change among Korean adults.
Ethics statement
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA) (Approval Nos. 2010-02CON-21-C, 2011-02CON-06-C, 2012-01EXP-01-2C, 2013-07CON-03-4C, 2013-12EXP-03-5C, 2018-01-03-P-A, 2018-01-03-C-A, 2018-01-03-2C-A, 2018-01-03-5C-A, 2018-01-03-4C-A, 2022-11-16-R-A, and 2022-11-16-R-03). Informed written consent was obtained from all participants.
1. Study design
This cross-sectional study was conducted in accordance with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines (https://www.strobe-statement.org/).
2. Study population and data collection
To analyze secular trends in kimchi consumption, consumption forms, and meal location patterns among Korean adults, this study utilized KNHANES data from the 5th survey cycle (2010–2012) through the 9th survey cycle (2022–2024). The KNHANES is a nationally representative repeated cross-sectional survey based on stratified, multistage probability cluster sampling. In addition to population-level long-term trend analyses, factor analyses of variables associated with kimchi consumption were conducted using data from the most recent 3-year period (2022–2024), applying survey-weighted logistic regression models incorporating sociodemographic and dietary characteristics, with 40 g/day (the recommended single serving of kimchi) as the reference threshold.
For the trend analysis, 103,267 participants (45,706 men and 57,561 women) were included after excluding 12,234 individuals, who lacked survey weight data, from the initial 115,501 eligible respondents. Of these, 86,090 reported kimchi consumption on the 24-hour dietary recall day, whereas 17,177 reported no consumption. Trend analyses were conducted separately for the total study population and kimchi intake subgroups. Long-term changes in kimchi intake and the proportion of non-consumers were estimated in the kimchi consumer subgroup; detailed consumption patterns by form and meal location were additionally examined.
The factor analysis was restricted to adults aged ≥ 30 years, as prior research indicates that socioeconomic indicators and lifestyle factors are relatively well established in this age group [17]. Among the 20,191 KNHANES participants surveyed between 2022 and 2024, those aged < 30 years (n = 4,864), those lacking survey weight data or who did not participating in the 24-hour dietary recall (n = 590), and those with physiologically implausible energy intake (women: < 500 kcal/day or > 3,500 kcal/day; men: < 800 kcal/day or > 4,000 kcal/day; n = 493) were excluded. The final analytic sample comprised 14,244 participants, stratified by age group (30–64 years: n = 9,138; ≥ 65 years: n = 5,106) and gender (men: n = 6,003; women: n = 8,241).
3. Measurements and variable definitions

1) Assessment and classification of kimchi consumption

Kimchi intake was estimated using the primary food code (N_FCODE), dish name, and intake quantity variables obtained from the 24-hour dietary recall. Based on prior research [18], kimchi types were classified as baechu kimchi (napa cabbage kimchi), kkakdugi kimchi (cubed radish kimchi), yeolmu kimchi (young radish kimchi), nabak kimchi (watery radish and cabbage kimchi), and other kimchi (including oi sobagi, yuche kimchi, and eolgari baechu kimchi). Given the nature of the 24-hour dietary recall method, participants with zero kimchi intake were defined as non-consumers on the day of the dietary recall, rather than as habitual abstainers.
Kimchi consumption form was classified by first extracting all records containing kimchi ingredients based on the food code (N_FCODE) and then applying the corresponding dish code (N_DCODE) to differentiate the intake form. Cases in which the dish name explicitly denoted a side dish (e.g., baechu kimchi, kkakdugi consumed as standalone accompaniments) were defined as ‘kimchi as a side dish.’ Cases involving composite dishes, such as kimchi-jjigae (kimchi stew) or kimchi-jeon (kimchi pancake), were defined as ‘kimchi in a dish’, with the net weight of kimchi ingredients (NF_INTK) extracted and summed accordingly.
Meal location was categorized into three settings: home, school/workplace (encompassing schools, workplaces, senior centers, and religious institution cafeterias), and restaurant (commercial food service establishments). Responses coded as ‘other’ or ‘unknown/no response’ were excluded.
Kimchi intake level was classified based on the single-serving recommended intake of 40 g/day as specified in the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans [19]. This threshold has also been applied in previous domestic epidemiological studies [20, 21], and was adopted in the present study to ensure comparability across studies. Participants were classified as meeting (≥ 40 g/day) or not meeting (< 40 g/day) the recommended intake.

2) Definition of general characteristics

Sociodemographic characteristics included gender, body mass index (BMI; kg/m2), educational attainment, household income level, smoking status, alcohol consumption, physical activity level, residential area, marital status, and household size. BMI was classified into four categories per Korean Society for the Study of Obesity criteria [22]: underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5 ≤ BMI < 23 kg/m2), overweight (23 ≤ BMI < 25 kg/m2), and obese (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2). Educational attainment was classified as middle school graduate or lower, high school graduate, or college graduate or above. Household income was estimated as monthly equivalized household income (monthly household income divided by the square root of household size) and categorized into quartiles: low, middle-low, middle-high, and high.
Smoking status was classified as never smoker (no smoking history), past smoker (prior smoking history, not currently smoking), or current smoker (smoking daily or occasionally at the time of the survey). Alcohol consumption was dichotomized (‘yes’/‘no’) based on whether the respondent reported consuming alcohol at least once per month over the preceding year. Physical activity was classified as ‘active’ or ‘inactive’ according to the KNHANES user guidelines [22], with ‘active’ defined as ≥ 75 min/week of vigorous-intensity activity, ≥ 150 min/week of moderate-intensity activity, or an equivalent combination thereof. Residential area was categorized as ‘urban’ (dong administrative district) or ‘rural’ (eup/myeon administrative district). Marital status was classified as ‘married’ (currently cohabiting with a spouse) or ‘single’ (encompassing never-married, separated, widowed, and divorced).
Dietary characteristics included meal environment and behavioral variables. Frequency of eating with others was classified as ‘none,’ ‘once per day,’ or ‘≥ twice per day’, based on whether the respondent shared meals with family members or others over the preceding year. Eating-out frequency was categorized as ‘≥ 1 day’, ‘1–6 times/week’, ‘1–3 times/month’, or ‘scarcely’. Meal frequency was assessed based on meal consumption during the 2 days preceding the dietary intake survey and classified as ‘3 meals/day’ or ‘1–2 meals/day’.
4. Statistical analysis
As the KNHANES is based on a complex, stratified, multistage probability cluster sampling design, all analyses incorporate stratification variables, cluster variables, and individual sampling weights.
Trend analyses of kimchi intake and the proportion of non-consumers were conducted using the KNHANES data from 2010 to 2024, stratified by gender. Annual changes in kimchi intake were assessed using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG), with survey year treated as a continuous variable; regression coefficients (β) and corresponding P-values were used to evaluate linear trends.
For the factor analysis using 2022–2024 data, survey-weighted logistic regression (PROC SURVEYLOGISTIC) was performed, with meeting the recommended kimchi intake (≥ 40 g/day) as the dependent variable. Results were presented as odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) from (i) a base model adjusted for age (continuous), gender, total energy intake, and total food intake; and (ii) a multivariable model additionally adjusted for educational attainment, household income, residential area, household composition, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity.
All statistical analyses were performed using SAS (Statistical Analysis System, version 9.4; SAS Institute). Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
1. Trends in kimchi consumption among Korean adults
Analysis of KNHANES data from 2010 to 2024 revealed a significant and broadly consistent decline in consumption of most kimchi types (Fig. 1). The most pronounced declining trend was observed for baechu kimchi, the predominant kimchi variety, relative to the other kimchi types.
In gender-stratified analyses, significant declining trends (P for trend < 0.001) were observed among men for all kimchi types except other kimchi, with the greatest decreases for total kimchi (β = −1.532) and baechu kimchi (β = −1.018). Among women, significant declining trends were observed across all kimchi types (P for trend < 0.001); total kimchi (β = −1.306) showed the greatest absolute decline, with baechu kimchi (β = −0.795) exhibiting a particularly pronounced downward trajectory. A transient increase in yeolmu kimchi consumption was observed between 2019 and 2020. However, the long-term trajectory remained consistent with an overall declining trend.
Among kimchi consumers (i.e., those reporting intake on the recall day), a significant overall declining trend was observed (Fig. 2). Total kimchi intake in this subgroup showed a statistically significant decrease (β = −0.623, P < 0.001), with similar patterns in men (β = −0.641, P < 0.001) and women (β = −0.632, P < 0.001). Baechu kimchi demonstrated a significant decline (β = −0.378, P < 0.001), consistent in women (β = −0.384) and men (β = −0.395). Nabak kimchi also showed a statistically significant decreasing trend in the kimchi consumer subgroup for both genders. Annual changes in kkakdugi, yeolmu kimchi, and other kimchi consumption among consumers were not statistically significant.
The proportion of participants who reported no kimchi intake on the day of dietary recall increased continuously throughout the observation period (Fig. 3). Among all participants, the proportion of non-consumers rose from 11.7% in 2010 to 22.7% in 2024; the corresponding values were 10.2% and 20.6% for men and 13.1% and 24.8% for women, respectively.
2. Secular trends in kimchi consumption patterns
The changes in the proportion of kimchi consumed as a side dish versus as an ingredient in composite dishes among kimchi consumers stratified by age group are shown in Fig. 4. The proportion consuming kimchi as a side dish declined significantly in all age groups except the 0–9 year group (P for trend < 0.05). The magnitude of decline was greatest in the 20–39 year group (β = −0.888), followed by the 40–59 year (β = −0.499) and 10–19 year (β = −0.419) groups.
Conversely, the proportion consuming kimchi in composite dishes increased significantly in most age groups (P for trend < 0.05), with the greatest increase in the 20–39 year group (β = 0.888), followed by the 40–59 year (β = 0.499) and 10–19 year (β = 0.419) groups.
3. Secular trends in kimchi consumption by meal location
Changes in kimchi intake according to meal location are shown in Fig. 5. At-home kimchi consumption declined significantly in all age groups under 60 years (P for trend < 0.020), with the greatest decreases observed in the 40–59 year (β = −1.352) and 20–39 year (β = −1.345) groups, followed by the 10–19 year group (β = −0.613). At school/workplace settings, kimchi intake increased significantly only in the 0–9 year group (β = 0.388, P for trend < 0.001), while a general declining trend was observed in other age groups, most notably in the 20–39 year group (β = −0.2034). Restaurant-based kimchi consumption exhibited divergent patterns: a declining trend was observed in the 20–39 year group (β = −0.616, P for trend < 0.001), whereas increasing trends were observed in most other age groups (except those aged 0–9 years), with the greatest increase among adults aged ≥ 60 years (β = 0.276).
4. Distribution and associated characteristics of kimchi consumption (2022–2024)
Kimchi intake was significantly associated with socioeconomic and lifestyle factors (Table 1). Individuals with lower income and educational attainment reported higher intake of most kimchi types, except kkakdugi and other kimchi. Rural residents consumed significantly greater amounts of total kimchi and baechu kimchi than did urban residents (P < 0.001). Total kimchi intake was relatively higher among those who dined alone and those with a lower eating out frequency. Individuals consuming three regular meals per day also reported a higher total kimchi intake.
Alcohol consumers and smokers reported relatively higher intake of total kimchi, baechu kimchi, and kkakdugi (P < 0.05). Physically inactive individuals and those with obesity also reported generally higher kimchi intake across most kimchi types (P < 0.05). Married individuals showed a tendency toward higher overall kimchi consumption, although this association was not statistically significant for all kimchi subtypes.
5. Associations between meeting the recommended kimchi intake (≥ 40 g/day) and sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics
Survey-weighted logistic regression identified factors associated with meeting the recommended kimchi intake (≥ 40 g/day); base model results are presented by age group (Table 2) and gender (Table 3).
In age-stratified analyses (Table 2), women in the 30–64 year group were significantly less likely to meet the recommended intake than were men (OR 0.61, 95% CI: 0.56–0.68); a comparable association was observed in the ≥ 65 year group (OR 0.60, 95% CI: 0.52–0.69). Alcohol consumers were approximately 30% more likely to meet the recommendation than were non-consumers in both age groups (30–64 years: OR 1.30, 95% CI: 1.17–1.44; ≥ 65 years: OR 1.29, 95% CI: 1.11–1.49); similar positive associations were observed for smokers (current smokers, 30–64 years: OR 1.35, 95% CI: 1.18–1.55; ≥ 65 years: OR 1.31, 95% CI: 1.00–1.72). Rural residents were more likely to meet the recommendation than were urban residents in both age groups (30–64 years: OR 1.28, 95% CI: 1.12–1.46; ≥ 65 years: OR 1.28, 95% CI: 1.06–1.54). Conversely, frequent solo dining was significantly inversely associated with meeting the recommendation (≥ 2 solo meals/day: 30–64 years: OR 0.67, 95% CI: 0.57–0.78; ≥ 65 years: OR 0.76, 95% CI: 0.65–0.90), and meal skipping was associated with a 30% lower likelihood than was consuming three meals per day (OR 0.70, 95% CI: 0.59–0.83).
Gender-stratified analyses yielded consistent results (Table 3). Adults aged ≥ 65 years were more likely to meet the recommendation than were those aged 30–64 years across all groups (total: OR 1.52, 95% CI: 1.39–1.66; men: OR 1.57, 95% CI: 1.36–1.82; women: OR 1.50, 95% CI: 1.35–1.66). Women with higher educational attainment were approximately 25% less likely to meet the recommended intake than were those with lower educational attainment. Conversely, men in the highest household income quartile were 36% more likely to meet the recommended intake than were those in the lowest quartile. These findings indicate gender-specific effects of socioeconomic factors on kimchi intake. Frequent solo dining was inversely associated with the likelihood of meeting the recommendation in both genders (total: OR 0.73, 95% CI: 0.65–0.82; men: OR 0.79, 95% CI: 0.66–0.95; women: OR 0.71, 95% CI: 0.62–0.81).
In multivariable-adjusted analyses incorporating sociodemographic and health behavior covariates (Tables 4 and 5), the overall findings were consistent with the base models. The inverse association with woman gender (30–64 years: OR 0.64, 95% CI: 0.56–0.73; ≥ 65 years: OR 0.60, 95% CI: 0.47–0.76), the positive associations with alcohol consumption and rural residence, and the inverse associations with solo dining and meal skipping all persisted after adjustment. Modest attenuation in the effect size was observed for select variables, but the overall directionality of the associations remained unchanged.
This study analyzed long-term changes in kimchi consumption patterns among Korean adults over a 15-year period (2010–2024) and comprehensively evaluated the sociodemographic, dietary, and health behavior factors associated with kimchi consumption using 2022–2024 data.
The observed changes in kimchi consumption trends extend beyond a simple reduction in quantity and may be interpreted as patterns reflective of broader transformations in traditional meal structures and the food consumption environment. The proliferation of single-person households has been identified as a factor associated with the attenuation of traditional kimjang culture [23], suggesting that the role of kimchi in the Korean diet may have diminished relative to prior generations. The most pronounced decline was observed for baechu kimchi; given its dominant share of total kimchi consumption, this decline was likely the primary contributor to the overall reduction [24]. In gender-stratified analyses, men reported a higher absolute kimchi intake than did women; however, the magnitude of the decline was greater among men. Men tend to consume kimchi in large quantities, whereas women tend to consume smaller but more regular amounts [25]; this difference in consumption patterns may explain the observed gender differences in the magnitude of decline.
The transient increase in yeolmu kimchi consumption between 2019 and 2020 may be attributable to changes in kimchi types served in food service establishments during that period [26]. The possibility that menu diversification and seasonal preferences in home and institutional food service settings synergistically contributed to this transient increase cannot be excluded. Nonetheless, the long-term trend of declining kimchi consumption and increasing proportion of non-consumers persisted throughout the observation period, corroborating an overall shift in the role of kimchi in the Korean diet.
Another salient finding was the concurrent decrease in kimchi as a side dish and an increase in kimchi as an ingredient in composite dishes. This shift is consistent with evidence of a transition from the traditional Korean meal structure comprising rice, soup, and side dishes to single-dish meals (e.g., stir-fried rice, stew, and noodle dishes), in which kimchi serves as a secondary ingredient, and toward HMR products and processed foods [27]. This trend was most pronounced among adults aged 20–39 years, suggesting an acceleration in generational transitions in dietary culture [28]. These findings indicate that kimchi consumption is being restructured away from traditional meal settings toward diverse food environments and may reflect a shift in supply from home preparation to commercial product purchases and food service or processed food channels [29, 30].
Changes in food consumption according to meal location have important social and scientific implications. The robust maintenance of restaurant-based kimchi consumption among older adults reflects consistent cultural food palatability preferences across eating contexts, whereas the sharp decline in at-home kimchi consumption among young and middle-aged adults suggests that household size contraction and changes in household structure may be important contextual factors in the erosion of traditional dietary habits. These findings align with prior logistic model-based analyses that reported a significant 0.34% increase in the probability of consuming kimchi at meals per additional year of age (P < 0.001), indicating that kimchi remains a central mealtime component in older adults [31].
Lower income and educational attainment were associated with relatively higher kimchi intake; these associations were broadly maintained in multivariable-adjusted models (Tables 4 and 5). Dietary diversification tends to accompany a higher socioeconomic status, and individuals with greater economic resources were more likely to consume a wider variety of food groups rather than relying predominantly on a single food category [32]. This may reflect a structural dietary change in which the traditional role of kimchi as a primary vegetable source is being replaced by a more diverse array of food groups. In addition to its role as a major vegetable source, kimchi, as a fermented food, is recognized as a dietary component associated with the gut microbiome and metabolic health. Accordingly, declining kimchi intake may not simply represent a change in the consumption of a single food, but may reflect broader dietary structural changes in fermented food and vegetable intake patterns, warranting further investigation relative to overall dietary quality and chronic disease risk. Gender-specific differences were also apparent; women with higher educational attainment showed lower compliance with the recommended intake in multivariable analyses, whereas men with higher household income showed greater compliance. These findings suggest that women with higher education may more actively pursue dietary diversification and health-conscious food choices, whereas men’s dietary habits may be relatively stable, irrespective of income level [33]. As socioeconomic variables contributing to dietary behavior differ by gender, these findings underscore the need for gender-stratified, economically sensitive nutritional education strategies.
The consistently higher kimchi intake among rural versus urban residents, maintained in multivariable-adjusted models, contrasts with the Westernization of dietary habits and increased reliance on eating-out and processed foods, which are characteristic of urban settings. Married individuals were more likely to meet the recommended intake than are single individuals, which may be related to a higher frequency of home-based meals and greater meal regularity [34]. Higher frequency of solo dining, meal skipping, and lower meal frequency were all significantly and inversely associated with kimchi intake after multivariable adjustment, suggesting that dietary changes associated with the rise of single-person households and the spread of solo dining culture may contribute to the decline in traditional side dish consumption [35, 36]. Alcohol consumption and smoking were positively associated with kimchi intake, potentially attributable to increased consumption of savory accompaniments during drinking or a preference for pungent and spicy flavors [37, 38]. Higher odds of meeting the recommended kimchi intake among individuals with obesity may reflect elevated total food intake or palatability-driven eating behaviors, rather than an independent effect of kimchi per se [39]. In multivariable analyses, underweight adults aged ≥ 65 years showed lower compliance with the recommended intake, possibly reflecting generalized reductions in food intake and nutritional inadequacy associated with aging.
In summary, the trends observed in kimchi consumption may be concomitant with broader changes in meal composition and overall dietary behavior. Future public health strategies should shift from pursuing increases in kimchi intake to dietary pattern-centered approaches that consider overall diet quality and balance, including total energy and sodium intake, with kimchi embedded within that broader context [40]. These findings highlight the need for tailored nutritional education and food environment improvement strategies that reflect the changing dietary landscape of young adults and single-person households.
Limitations
The present study has some limitations. First, as the study relied on single-day 24-hour dietary recall data, the findings reflect dietary intake on the day of assessment rather than long-term habitual dietary patterns. In particular, ‘non-consumers on the dietary recall day’ should not be equated with habitual abstainers, and the potential for non-differential misclassification of kimchi consumption status should be acknowledged. Therefore, the results should be interpreted as reflecting changes in consumption patterns rather than absolute intake levels.
Second, the quantities of food within composite dishes in the KNHANES were estimated based on national standardized recipes and may not fully capture the variability in kimchi content attributable to actual preparation methods in home or restaurant settings. Furthermore, while intake weight (g) was used as the unit of analysis, kimchi incorporated into heat-processed composite dishes (e.g., stews and stir-fry) may exhibit nutritional properties different from those of raw kimchi (e.g., changes in sodium concentration), a factor not accounted for in the current analyses.
Third, while consumption form was classified as ‘side dish’ or ‘ingredient in a composite dish’ by linking food codes (N_FCODE) with dish codes (N_DCODE), classification of certain composite dishes relied on dish names and standardized recipe-based information, precluding complete disambiguation of consumption form. When the same dish name encompasses different preparation methods or kimchi usage, the possibility of nondifferential misclassification cannot be entirely excluded.
Fourth, the cross-sectional study design precluded a causal interpretation of the observed associations. Notwithstanding, the present study contributes to the literature by comprehensively analyzing quantitative and qualitative changes in kimchi consumption over approximately 15 years using the most recent large-scale nationally representative data through 2024 and provides a multidimensional evaluation of traditional food culture changes and associated dietary patterns by simultaneously considering consumption form and meal environment.
Conclusion
The findings of the present study suggest that the role of kimchi in everyday eating is undergoing a structural transformation and raise the need for a reexamination of nutritional policies and food cultural approaches predicated on conventional kimchi consumption patterns. Therefore, future strategies to promote kimchi consumption should extend beyond the preservation of traditional food cultures and encompass practical approaches that reflect contemporary dietary patterns and living environments. These findings provide foundational evidence for policy formulation aimed at improving dietary quality and fostering the contemporary succession of traditional Korean food culture among the Korean population.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

There are no financial or other issues that might lead to a conflict of interest.

FUNDING

This study was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean Government (MSIT; RS-2025-00556573). This study was supported by the World Institute of Kimchi (WIKIM) [No. KEB2602-3-2].

DATA AVAILABILITY

All the data and materials are publicly available on the KNHANES website (https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr/knhanes/main.do).

Fig. 1.
Trends in kimchi consumption by gender among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the mean daily intake (g/day) of (A) total kimchi, (B) baechu kimchi, (C) kkakdugi, (D) yeolmu kimchi, (E) nabak kimchi, and (F) other kimchi. Values are presented as survey-weighted means. Blue lines indicate the total population, orange lines indicate men, and green lines indicate women. β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
kjcn-2026-00108f1.jpg
Fig. 2.
Trends in kimchi consumption by gender among participants in the kimchi intake group, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the mean daily intake (g/day) of (A) total kimchi, (B) baechu kimchi, (C) kkakdugi, (D) yeolmu kimchi, (E) nabak kimchi, and (F) other kimchi. Values are presented as survey-weighted means. Blue lines indicate the total population, orange lines indicate men, and green lines indicate women. β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
kjcn-2026-00108f2.jpg
Fig. 3.
Trends in the proportion of the kimchi non-intake group by gender among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. Values are presented as survey-weighted percentages (%). Blue lines indicate the total population, orange lines indicate men, and green lines indicate women. The kimchi non-intake group was defined as participants reporting no kimchi consumption on the 24-hour dietary recall day.
kjcn-2026-00108f3.jpg
Fig. 4.
Age-specific trends in kimchi consumption patterns among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the proportion (%) of kimchi consumed as a side dish (upper panel) and kimchi consumed in dish ingredient (lower panel). Lines represent age groups (0–9, 10–19, 20–39, 40–59, and ≥ 60 years). Values are presented as survey-weighted percentages. β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake proportion estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
kjcn-2026-00108f4.jpg
Fig. 5.
Age-specific trends in kimchi consumption by meal location among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the mean daily intake (g/day) of kimchi consumed at home, school/workplace, and restaurants for each age group: (A) home, (B) school/workplace, and (C) restaurant. The values are presented as survey-weighted means. Lines represent age groups (0–9, 10–19, 20–39, 40–59, and ≥ 60 years). β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
kjcn-2026-00108f5.jpg
Table 1.
Kimchi consumption according to general factors
Characteristics n Total kimchi Baechu kimchi Kkakduki Yeolmu kimchi Nabak kimchi Other kimchi
1. Socioeconomic characteristics
 Income level
  Low 2,920 116.92 ± 3.04 71.18 ± 2.38 7.08 ± 0.71 12.90 ± 1.16 14.18 ± 1.37 11.58 ± 1.07
  Lower-middle 3,484 107.16 ± 2.76 66.21 ± 1.95 9.34 ± 0.62 11.46 ± 1.32 8.25 ± 0.83 11.90 ± 0.81
  Upper-middle 3,783 99.81 ± 2.16 64.73 ± 1.68 9.03 ± 0.56 9.19 ± 0.83 6.62 ± 0.72 10.23 ± 0.64
  High 4,008 95.57 ± 1.99 60.79 ± 1.55 10.33 ± 0.68 7.77 ± 0.71 5.43 ± 0.67 11.25 ± 0.90
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.004 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.567
 Education level
  Middle school 4,146 124.68 ± 2.68 73.13 ± 2.06 8.23 ± 0.60 15.11 ± 1.17 14.73 ± 1.12 13.49 ± 0.89
  Graduate or below high school graduate 4,230 107.96 ± 2.07 68.12 ± 1.57 9.82 ± 0.58 9.89 ± 0.82 7.56 ± 0.66 12.56 ± 0.88
  University graduate or above 5,450 87.08 ± 1.56 57.55 ± 1.19 9.20 ± 0.45 6.62 ± 0.54 4.43 ± 0.54 9.28 ± 0.54
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.307 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
 Residential area
  Urban 11,042 98.06 ± 1.42 61.35 ± 1.05 9.04 ± 0.36 9.43 ± 0.65 7.48 ± 0.47 10.77 ± 0.52
  Rural 3,202 125.51 ± 4.19 81.45 ± 3.43 9.95 ± 0.73 11.76 ± 1.24 9.24 ± 1.05 13.11 ± 1.10
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.265 0.096 0.127 0.057
2. Dietary factors
 Eating alone
  None 3,847 125.34 ± 2.56 72.68 ± 1.79 9.95 ± 0.62 14.21 ± 1.12 13.77 ± 1.14 14.73 ± 0.95
  1/day 4,895 97.3 ± 1.78 63.88 ± 1.38 9.60 ± 0.54 8.22 ± 0.60 5.65 ± 0.50 9.95 ± 0.64
  ≥ 2/day 5,502 94.5 ± 1.85 61.04 ± 1.42 8.33 ± 0.47 8.73 ± 0.78 6.20 ± 0.53 10.2 ± 0.51
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.019 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
 Dining out frequency
  ≥ 1/day 2,250 99.55 ± 2.69 66.66 ± 1.96 12.18 ± 0.81 8.05 ± 1.22 4.51 ± 0.73 8.15 ± 0.70
  1–6/week 7,243 96.57 ± 1.53 62.11 ± 1.21 8.71 ± 0.42 8.63 ± 0.57 5.72 ± 0.44 11.4 ± 0.56
  1–3/month 3,220 114.18 ± 2.68 66.81 ± 2.01 8.68 ± 0.69 13.36 ± 1.11 12.43 ± 1.05 12.90 ± 0.90
  Scarcely 1,531 125.58 ± 4.36 74.28 ± 3.28 6.50 ± 0.78 13.71 ± 1.63 18.20 ± 2.07 12.90 ± 1.24
  P-value < 0.001 0.030 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
 Meal frequency
  3/day 9,935 113.66 ± 1.68 68.97 ± 1.28 9.63 ± 0.40 12.37 ± 0.81 9.70 ± 0.58 12.98 ± 0.61
  1–2/day 4,309 82.23 ± 1.73 57.05 ± 1.36 8.36 ± 0.52 4.98 ± 0.45 4.11 ± 0.50 7.73 ± 0.49
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.044 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
3. Health-related factors
 Alcohol consumption
  No 7,164 98.15 ± 1.73 58.33 ± 1.33 8.14 ± 0.43 11.12 ± 0.72 8.95 ± 0.59 11.60 ± 0.56
  Yes 6,821 106.17 ± 1.65 70.04 ± 1.27 10.06 ± 0.44 8.39 ± 0.55 6.76 ± 0.53 10.91 ± 0.61
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001 0.002 0.326
 Smoking status
  Never smoker 8,578 89.67 ± 1.42 53.6 ± 1.07 7.60 ± 0.35 9.53 ± 0.58 7.99 ± 0.50 10.95 ± 0.55
  Past smoker 3,443 120.68 ± 2.35 77.6 ± 1.88 11.64 ± 0.67 10.93 ± 0.90 8.15 ± 0.73 12.36 ± 0.72
  Current smoker 1,952 116.87 ± 2.93 81.57 ± 2.32 10.61 ± 0.81 7.89 ± 0.88 6.38 ± 0.84 10.42 ± 0.85
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.375 0.128 0.876
 Physical activity
  No 7,608 105.87 ± 1.78 66.39 ± 1.33 8.87 ± 0.46 10.02 ± 0.63 8.63 ± 0.61 11.95 ± 0.61
  Yes 5,528 97.59 ± 1.72 61.55 ± 1.30 9.24 ± 0.44 9.32 ± 0.68 6.70 ± 0.57 10.78 ± 0.61
  P-value < 0.001 0.004 0.540 0.349 0.012 0.128
 Obesity1)
  Underweight 759 94.78 ± 4.95 56.29 ± 3.40 7.83 ± 1.10 11.37 ± 2.07 9.14 ± 1.94 10.15 ± 1.44
  Normal 5,093 91.87 ± 1.68 57.58 ± 1.28 7.72 ± 0.48 9.66 ± 0.67 6.87 ± 0.58 10.04 ± 0.55
  Overweight 3,280 106.72 ± 2.26 65.98 ± 1.74 10.21 ± 0.62 10.25 ± 0.88 8.35 ± 0.76 11.93 ± 0.75
  Obese 5,112 111.91 ± 2.07 72.22 ± 1.57 10.14 ± 0.53 9.53 ± 0.87 8.10 ± 0.64 11.92 ± 0.81
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.610 0.378 0.032
4. Household factors
 Marital status
  Single 3,692 95.54 ± 2.17 63.38 ± 1.75 7.39 ± 0.55 7.85 ± 0.65 6.81 ± 0.63 10.10 ± 0.73
  Married 10,536 105.44 ± 1.53 65.42 ± 1.12 9.83 ± 0.40 10.5 ± 0.70 8.12 ± 0.51 11.56 ± 0.53
  P-value < 0.001 0.270 < 0.001 0.002 0.083 0.074
 No. of household members
  1 2,407 107.15 ± 2.87 71.49 ± 2.13 9.25 ± 0.80 8.42 ± 0.78 6.96 ± 0.76 11.04 ± 0.96
  2 5,594 111.48 ± 2.25 66.72 ± 1.55 8.76 ± 0.49 12.51 ± 0.9 11.16 ± 0.81 12.33 ± 0.7
  3 3,278 96.86 ± 2.48 62.32 ± 1.88 8.99 ± 0.69 8.99 ± 0.79 5.76 ± 0.76 10.80 ± 0.84
  4 2,340 93.35 ± 2.69 59.53 ± 1.93 10.44 ± 0.82 7.61 ± 1.29 4.92 ± 0.87 10.85 ± 1.13
  5 489 98.8 ± 5.54 67.85 ± 4.36 7.27 ± 1.14 7.41 ± 1.61 9.34 ± 2.75 6.93 ± 2.14
  6 136 96.72 ± 11.54 63.33 ± 6.69 11.77 ± 3.4 12.77 ± 7.01 3.53 ± 1.70 5.32 ± 1.69
  P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.386 0.042 < 0.001 0.046

Values are presented as weighted means ± standard errors (SE) for continuous variables and weighted percentages for categorical variables, accounting for the complex sampling design. Integrated weights for the period of 2022–2024 were applied.

The numbers of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

P-values for differences among survey years were calculated using linear regression models (PROC SURVEYREG) for continuous variables and Rao–Scott chi‑square tests (PROC SURVEYFREQ) for categorical variables.

1)Obesity: Underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2), normal (18.5 kg/m2 < BMI ≤ 23 kg/m2), overweight (23 kg/m2 < BMI ≤ 25 kg/m2), obese (≥ 25 kg/m2).

Table 2.
Age-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024
Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
30–64 age group ≥ 65 age group
n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
Gender
 Men 3,797 1.00 2,206 1.00
 Women 5,341 0.61 (0.56, 0.68) 2,900 0.60 (0.52, 0.69)
BMI
 Low weight 417 1.05 (0.84, 1.32) 342 0.80 (0.60, 1.07)
 Normal weight 3,387 1.00 1,706 1.00
 Overweight 1,987 1.19 (1.03, 1.37) 1,293 1.03 (0.86, 1.24)
 Obese 3,347 1.22 (1.08, 1.36) 1,765 1.10 (0.93, 1.29)
Education level
 Under middle school 980 1.00 3,166 1.00
 High school 3,158 0.88 (0.72, 1.06) 1,072 1.04 (0.87, 1.25)
 Beyond college 4,883 0.83 (0.68, 1.01) 567 0.77 (0.61, 0.97)
Household income
 Low 687 1.00 2,233 1.00
 Middle-low 1,986 1.22 (0.98, 1.53) 1,498 1.06 (0.88, 1.26)
 Middle-high 2,919 1.16 (0.92, 1.45) 864 0.93 (0.75, 1.14)
 High 3,518 1.10 (0.88, 1.36) 490 0.86 (0.64, 1.15)
Alcohol consumption
 No 3,885 1.00 3,279 1.00
 Yes 5,170 1.30 (1.17, 1.44) 1,651 1.29 (1.11, 1.49)
Smoking status
 Never smoker 5,452 1.00 3,126 1.00
 Past smoker 2,087 1.38 (1.22, 1.55) 1,356 1.46 (1.24, 1.73)
 Current smoker 1,513 1.35 (1.18, 1.55) 439 1.31 (1.00, 1.72)
Physical activity
 Inactive 4,487 1.00 3,121 1.00
 Active 4,063 0.95 (0.85, 1.05) 1,465 1.02 (0.88, 1.19)
Residential area
 Urban 7,505 1.00 3,537 1.00
 Rural 1,633 1.28 (1.12, 1.46) 1,569 1.28 (1.06, 1.54)
Marital status
 Single 2,088 1.00 1,604 1.00
 Married 7,043 0.99 (0.87, 1.11) 3,493 1.38 (1.19, 1.62)
Eating alone
 None 1,852 1.00 1,995 1.00
 1/day 3,854 0.78 (0.68, 0.90) 1,041 0.90 (0.74, 1.08)
 ≥ 2/day 3,432 0.67 (0.58, 0.78) 2,070 0.76 (0.65, 0.90)
Dining out frequency
 ≥ 1/day 2,031 1.00 219 1.00
 1–6/week 5,397 0.84 (0.74, 0.94) 1,846 0.85 (0.59, 1.22)
 1–3/month 1,367 0.79 (0.67, 0.93) 1,853 0.97 (0.68, 1.39)
 Scarcely 343 0.86 (0.64, 1.15) 1,188 0.91 (0.63, 1.33)
Meal frequency
 3/day 5,630 1.00 4,305 1.00
 1–2/day 3,508 0.85 (0.76, 0.94) 801 0.70 (0.59, 0.83)

Numbers of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

Adjusting for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), and total food intake (continuous).

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index.

Table 3.
Gender-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024
Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
Total Men Women
n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
Age (year)
 30–64 9,138 1.00 3,797 1.00 5,341 1.00
 ≥ 65 5,106 1.52 (1.39, 1.66) 2,206 1.57 (1.36, 1.82) 2,900 1.50 (1.35, 1.66)
BMI
 Low weight 759 0.93 (0.78, 1.10) 213 1.10 (0.74, 1.60) 546 0.87 (0.71, 1.07)
 Normal weight 5,093 1.00 1,690 1.00 3,403 1.00
 Overweight 3,280 1.07 (0.96, 1.20) 1,564 1.09 (0.90, 1.31) 1,716 1.10 (0.95, 1.27)
 Obese 5,112 1.09 (0.99, 1.20) 2,536 1.18 (1.00, 1.39) 2,576 1.08 (0.95, 1.22)
Education level
 Under middle school 4,146 1.00 1,428 1.00 2,718 1.00
 High school 4,230 1.04 (0.92, 1.18) 1,816 1.22 (0.99, 1.52) 2,414 0.88 (0.75, 1.04)
 Beyond college 5,450 0.88 (0.77, 1.02) 2,596 1.00 (0.80, 1.24) 2,854 0.75 (0.63, 0.90)
Household income
 Low 2,920 1.00 1,072 1.00 1,848 1.00
 Middle-low 3,484 1.26 (1.11, 1.44) 1,396 1.41 (1.12, 1.79) 2,088 1.16 (0.99, 1.36)
 Middle-high 3,783 1.19 (1.03, 1.37) 1,673 1.41 (1.12, 1.78) 2,110 1.05 (0.88, 1.24)
 High 4,008 1.14 (0.98, 1.32) 1,848 1.36 (1.08, 1.70) 2,160 0.99 (0.83, 1.18)
Alcohol consumption
 No 7,164 1.00 2,092 1.00 5,072 1.00
 Yes 6,821 1.20 (1.10, 1.31) 3,821 1.03 (1.02, 1.03) 3,000 1.04 (0.94, 1.15)
Smoking status
 Never smoker 8,578 1.00 1,325 1.00 7,253 1.00
 Past smoker 3,443 1.08 (0.95, 1.22) 2,922 1.10 (0.93, 1.30) 521 1.01 (0.82, 1.24)
 Current smoker 1,952 1.06 (0.92, 1.23) 1,656 1.12 (0.94, 1.35) 296 0.90 (0.69, 1.17)
Physical activity
 Inactive 7,608 1.00 3,076 1.00 4,532 1.00
 Active 5,528 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) 2,435 1.06 (0.92, 1.23) 3,093 0.89 (0.80, 0.99)
Residential area
 Urban 11,042 1.00 4,595 1.00 6,447 1.00
 Rural 3,202 1.24 (1.09, 1.40) 1,408 1.25 (1.05, 1.50) 1,794 1.23 (1.07, 1.41)
Marital status
 Single 3,692 1.00 1,225 1.00 2,467 1.00
 Married 10,536 1.16 (1.06, 1.27) 4,772 1.02 (0.87, 1.21) 5,764 1.21 (1.08, 1.35)
Eating alone
 None 3,847 1.00 1,887 1.00 1,960 1.00
 1/day 4,895 0.83 (0.74, 0.92) 2,313 0.79 (0.66, 0.94) 2,582 0.88 (0.76, 1.02)
 ≥ 2/day 5,502 0.73 (0.65, 0.82) 1,803 0.79 (0.66, 0.95) 3,699 0.71 (0.62, 0.81)
Dining out frequency
 ≥ 1/day 2,250 1.00 1,435 1.00 815 1.00
 1–6/week 7,243 0.93 (0.83, 1.04) 3,005 0.89 (0.76, 1.04) 4,238 0.98 (0.83, 1.17)
 1–3/month 3,220 0.96 (0.83, 1.10) 1,110 0.74 (0.59, 0.94) 2,110 1.14 (0.95, 1.37)
 Scarcely 1,531 0.87 (0.73, 1.05) 453 0.65 (0.48, 0.89) 1,078 1.10 (0.87, 1.39)
Meal frequency
 3/day 9,935 1.00 4,166 1.00 5,769 1.00
 1–2/day 4,309 0.77 (0.70, 0.84) 1,837 0.73 (0.63, 0.85) 2,472 0.81 (0.72, 0.90)

Numbers of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

Adjusted for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), and total food intake (continuous).

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval, BMI, body mass index.

Table 4.
Multivariable-adjusted age-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024
Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
30–64 age group ≥ 65 age group
n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
Gender
 Men 3,797 1.00 2,206 1.00
 Women 5,341 0.64 (0.56, 0.73) 2,900 0.60 (0.47, 0.76)
BMI
 Low weight 417 1.11 (0.87, 1.41) 342 0.73 (0.54, 0.99)
 Normal weight 3,387 1.00 1,706 1.00
 Overweight 1,987 1.11 (0.96, 1.29) 1,293 0.99 (0.82, 1.20)
 Obese 3,347 1.12 (1.00, 1.26) 1,765 1.04 (0.87, 1.24)
Education level
 Under middle school 980 1.00 3,166 1.00
 High school 3,158 0.87 (0.71, 1.07) 1,072 0.99 (0.81, 1.21)
 Beyond college 4,883 0.83 (0.68, 1.03) 567 0.77 (0.59, 1.00)
Household income
 Low 687 1.00 2,233 1.00
 Middle-low 1,986 1.25 (0.99, 1.58) 1,498 0.96 (0.79, 1.15)
 Middle-high 2,919 1.18 (0.93, 1.50) 864 0.87 (0.68, 1.12)
 High 3,518 1.16 (0.92, 1.47) 490 0.79 (0.56, 1.44)
Alcohol consumption
 No 3,885 1.00 3,279 1.00
 Yes 5,170 1.23 (1.10, 1.37) 1,651 1.22 (1.03, 1.45)
Smoking status
 Never smoker 5,452 1.00 3,126 1.00
 Past smoker 2,087 1.33 (1.16, 1.51) 1,356 1.38 (1.14, 1.67)
 Current smoker 1,513 1.23 (1.06, 1.42) 439 1.20 (0.88, 1.62)
Physical activity
 Inactive 4,487 1.00 3,121 1.00
 Active 4,063 0.96 (0.86, 1.07) 1,465 1.05 (0.90, 1.22)
Residential area
 Urban 7,505 1.00 3,537 1.00
 Rural 1,633 1.29 (1.12, 1.50) 1,569 1.36 (1.11, 1.66)
Marital status
 Single 2,088 1.00 1,604 1.00
 Married 7,043 0.98 (0.84, 1.14) 3,493 1.32 (1.02, 1.69)
Eating alone
 None 1,852 1.00 1,995 1.00
 1/day 3,854 0.77 (0.67, 0.89) 1,041 0.97 (0.80, 1.19)
 ≥ 2/day 3,432 0.69 (0.59, 0.80) 2,070 0.85 (0.69, 1.05)
Dining out frequency
 ≥ 1/day 2,031 1.00 219 1.00
 1–6/week 5,397 0.86 (0.75, 0.97) 1,846 0.85 (0.58, 1.25)
 1–3/month 1,367 0.88, 0.73, 1.06) 1,853 0.93 (0.63, 1.35)
 Scarcely 343 0.85 (0.62, 1.17) 1,188 0.91 (0.61, 1.37)
Meal frequency
 3/day 5,630 1.00 4,305 1.00
 1–2/day 3,508 0.81 (0.72, 0.90) 801 0.68 (0.56, 0.82)

The number of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

Adjusting for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), total food intake (continuous), education level, household income, residential area, household composition (single-person household), smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity.

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval, BMI, body mass index.

Table 5.
Multivariable-adjusted gender-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024
Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
Total Men Women
n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
Age (year)
 30–64 9,138 1.00 3,797 1.00 5,341 1.00
 ≥ 65 5,106 1.33 (1.18, 1.51) 2,206 1.42 (1.18, 1.71) 2,900 1.09 (0.93, 1.28)
BMI
 Low weight 759 0.93 (0.78, 1.12) 213 1.10 (0.73, 1.68) 546 0.89 (0.72, 1.11)
 Normal weight 5,093 1.00 1,690 1.00 3,403 1.00
 Overweight 3,280 1.09 (0.96, 1.22) 1,564 1.03 (0.85, 1.24) 1,716 1.07 (0.92, 1.24)
 Obese 5,112 1.10 (1.00, 1.21) 2,536 1.09 (0.92, 1.29) 2,576 1.03 (0.90, 1.17)
Education level
 Under middle school 4,146 1.00 1,428 1.00 2,718 1.00
 High school 4,230 1.01 (0.88, 1.16) 1,816 1.13 (0.89, 1.42) 2,414 0.88 (0.74, 1.05)
 Beyond college 5,450 0.90 (0.77, 1.05) 2,596 0.91 (0.71, 1.16) 2,854 0.76 (0.63, 0.91)
Household income
 Low 2,920 1.00 1,072 1.00 1,848 1.00
 Middle-low 3,484 1.17 (1.02, 1.36) 1,396 1.33 (1.03, 1.73) 2,088 1.07 (0.90, 1.26)
 Middle-high 3,783 1.13 (0.96, 1.32) 1,673 1.35 (1.04, 1.76) 2,110 0.98 (0.82, 1.19)
 High 4,008 1.12 (0.95, 1.32) 1,848 1.34 (1.03, 1.75) 2,160 0.95 (0.79, 1.15)
Alcohol consumption
 No 7,164 1.00 2,092 1.00 5,072 1.00
 Yes 6,821 1.24 (1.13, 1.35) 3,821 1.43 (1.23, 1.65) 3,000 1.03 (0.93, 1.15)
Smoking status
 Never smoker 8,578 1.00 1,325 1.00 7,253 1.00
 Past smoker 3,443 1.33 (1.19, 1.48) 2,922 1.02 (0.85, 1.22) 521 1.01 (0.81, 1.25)
 Current smoker 1,952 1.25 (1.09, 1.40) 1,656 0.97 (0.80, 1.18) 296 0.84 (0.64, 1.10)
Physical activity
 Inactive 7,608 1.00 3,076 1.00 4,532 1.00
 Active 5,528 0.99 (0.90, 1.08) 2,435 1.08 (0.93, 1.25) 3,093 0.89 (0.80, 1.00)
Residential area
 Urban 11,042 1.00 4,595 1.00 6,447 1.00
 Rural 3,202 1.32 (1.15, 1.50) 1,408 1.38 (1.12, 1.69) 1,794 1.24 (1.07, 1.44)
Marital status
 Single 3,692 1.00 1,225 1.00 2,467 1.00
 Married 10,536 1.12 (1.00, 1.27) 4,772 0.95 (0.76, 1.18) 5,764 1.21 (1.06, 1.40)
Eating alone
 None 3,847 1.00 1,887 1.00 1,960 1.00
 1/day 4,895 0.83 (0.74, 0.93) 2,313 0.77 (0.64, 0.92) 2,582 0.93 (0.79, 1.08)
 ≥ 2/day 5,502 0.73 (0.64, 0.83) 1,803 0.80 (0.65, 0.98) 3,699 0.76 (0.65, 0.88)
Dining out frequency
 ≥ 1/day 2,250 1.00 1,435 1.00 815 1.00
 1–6/week 7,243 0.87 (0.77, 0.98) 3,005 0.89 (0.75, 1.06) 4,238 0.96 (0.80, 1.16)
 1–3/month 3,220 0.90 (0.77, 1.05) 1,110 0.79 (0.60, 1.02) 2,110 1.11 (0.91, 1.37)
 Scarcely 1,531 0.84 (0.69, 1.03) 453 0.65 (0.47, 0.92) 1,078 1.09 (0.84, 1.41)
Meal frequency
 3/day 9,935 1.00 4,166 1.00 5,769 1.00
 1–2/day 4,309 0.78 (0.71, 0.85) 1,837 0.70 (0.60, 0.82) 2,472 0.83 (0.74, 0.93)

The number of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

Adjusting for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), total food intake (continuous), education level, household income, residential area, household composition (single-person household), smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity.

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval, BMI, body mass index.

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        Changing patterns and related factors of kimchi consumption among Korean adults: a nationwide cross-sectional analysis of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2024
        Korean J Community Nutr. 2026;31(3):244-263.   Published online June 30, 2026
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      Changing patterns and related factors of kimchi consumption among Korean adults: a nationwide cross-sectional analysis of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2024
      Image Image Image Image Image
      Fig. 1. Trends in kimchi consumption by gender among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the mean daily intake (g/day) of (A) total kimchi, (B) baechu kimchi, (C) kkakdugi, (D) yeolmu kimchi, (E) nabak kimchi, and (F) other kimchi. Values are presented as survey-weighted means. Blue lines indicate the total population, orange lines indicate men, and green lines indicate women. β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
      Fig. 2. Trends in kimchi consumption by gender among participants in the kimchi intake group, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the mean daily intake (g/day) of (A) total kimchi, (B) baechu kimchi, (C) kkakdugi, (D) yeolmu kimchi, (E) nabak kimchi, and (F) other kimchi. Values are presented as survey-weighted means. Blue lines indicate the total population, orange lines indicate men, and green lines indicate women. β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
      Fig. 3. Trends in the proportion of the kimchi non-intake group by gender among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. Values are presented as survey-weighted percentages (%). Blue lines indicate the total population, orange lines indicate men, and green lines indicate women. The kimchi non-intake group was defined as participants reporting no kimchi consumption on the 24-hour dietary recall day.
      Fig. 4. Age-specific trends in kimchi consumption patterns among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the proportion (%) of kimchi consumed as a side dish (upper panel) and kimchi consumed in dish ingredient (lower panel). Lines represent age groups (0–9, 10–19, 20–39, 40–59, and ≥ 60 years). Values are presented as survey-weighted percentages. β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake proportion estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.
      Fig. 5. Age-specific trends in kimchi consumption by meal location among Korean adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2024. The panels show the mean daily intake (g/day) of kimchi consumed at home, school/workplace, and restaurants for each age group: (A) home, (B) school/workplace, and (C) restaurant. The values are presented as survey-weighted means. Lines represent age groups (0–9, 10–19, 20–39, 40–59, and ≥ 60 years). β-coefficients represent annual changes in intake estimated using survey-weighted linear regression (PROC SURVEYREG); P for trend values were obtained from the same models.

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      Fig. 5.

      Changing patterns and related factors of kimchi consumption among Korean adults: a nationwide cross-sectional analysis of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2024
      Characteristics n Total kimchi Baechu kimchi Kkakduki Yeolmu kimchi Nabak kimchi Other kimchi
      1. Socioeconomic characteristics
       Income level
        Low 2,920 116.92 ± 3.04 71.18 ± 2.38 7.08 ± 0.71 12.90 ± 1.16 14.18 ± 1.37 11.58 ± 1.07
        Lower-middle 3,484 107.16 ± 2.76 66.21 ± 1.95 9.34 ± 0.62 11.46 ± 1.32 8.25 ± 0.83 11.90 ± 0.81
        Upper-middle 3,783 99.81 ± 2.16 64.73 ± 1.68 9.03 ± 0.56 9.19 ± 0.83 6.62 ± 0.72 10.23 ± 0.64
        High 4,008 95.57 ± 1.99 60.79 ± 1.55 10.33 ± 0.68 7.77 ± 0.71 5.43 ± 0.67 11.25 ± 0.90
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.004 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.567
       Education level
        Middle school 4,146 124.68 ± 2.68 73.13 ± 2.06 8.23 ± 0.60 15.11 ± 1.17 14.73 ± 1.12 13.49 ± 0.89
        Graduate or below high school graduate 4,230 107.96 ± 2.07 68.12 ± 1.57 9.82 ± 0.58 9.89 ± 0.82 7.56 ± 0.66 12.56 ± 0.88
        University graduate or above 5,450 87.08 ± 1.56 57.55 ± 1.19 9.20 ± 0.45 6.62 ± 0.54 4.43 ± 0.54 9.28 ± 0.54
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.307 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
       Residential area
        Urban 11,042 98.06 ± 1.42 61.35 ± 1.05 9.04 ± 0.36 9.43 ± 0.65 7.48 ± 0.47 10.77 ± 0.52
        Rural 3,202 125.51 ± 4.19 81.45 ± 3.43 9.95 ± 0.73 11.76 ± 1.24 9.24 ± 1.05 13.11 ± 1.10
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.265 0.096 0.127 0.057
      2. Dietary factors
       Eating alone
        None 3,847 125.34 ± 2.56 72.68 ± 1.79 9.95 ± 0.62 14.21 ± 1.12 13.77 ± 1.14 14.73 ± 0.95
        1/day 4,895 97.3 ± 1.78 63.88 ± 1.38 9.60 ± 0.54 8.22 ± 0.60 5.65 ± 0.50 9.95 ± 0.64
        ≥ 2/day 5,502 94.5 ± 1.85 61.04 ± 1.42 8.33 ± 0.47 8.73 ± 0.78 6.20 ± 0.53 10.2 ± 0.51
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.019 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
       Dining out frequency
        ≥ 1/day 2,250 99.55 ± 2.69 66.66 ± 1.96 12.18 ± 0.81 8.05 ± 1.22 4.51 ± 0.73 8.15 ± 0.70
        1–6/week 7,243 96.57 ± 1.53 62.11 ± 1.21 8.71 ± 0.42 8.63 ± 0.57 5.72 ± 0.44 11.4 ± 0.56
        1–3/month 3,220 114.18 ± 2.68 66.81 ± 2.01 8.68 ± 0.69 13.36 ± 1.11 12.43 ± 1.05 12.90 ± 0.90
        Scarcely 1,531 125.58 ± 4.36 74.28 ± 3.28 6.50 ± 0.78 13.71 ± 1.63 18.20 ± 2.07 12.90 ± 1.24
        P-value < 0.001 0.030 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
       Meal frequency
        3/day 9,935 113.66 ± 1.68 68.97 ± 1.28 9.63 ± 0.40 12.37 ± 0.81 9.70 ± 0.58 12.98 ± 0.61
        1–2/day 4,309 82.23 ± 1.73 57.05 ± 1.36 8.36 ± 0.52 4.98 ± 0.45 4.11 ± 0.50 7.73 ± 0.49
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.044 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
      3. Health-related factors
       Alcohol consumption
        No 7,164 98.15 ± 1.73 58.33 ± 1.33 8.14 ± 0.43 11.12 ± 0.72 8.95 ± 0.59 11.60 ± 0.56
        Yes 6,821 106.17 ± 1.65 70.04 ± 1.27 10.06 ± 0.44 8.39 ± 0.55 6.76 ± 0.53 10.91 ± 0.61
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001 0.002 0.326
       Smoking status
        Never smoker 8,578 89.67 ± 1.42 53.6 ± 1.07 7.60 ± 0.35 9.53 ± 0.58 7.99 ± 0.50 10.95 ± 0.55
        Past smoker 3,443 120.68 ± 2.35 77.6 ± 1.88 11.64 ± 0.67 10.93 ± 0.90 8.15 ± 0.73 12.36 ± 0.72
        Current smoker 1,952 116.87 ± 2.93 81.57 ± 2.32 10.61 ± 0.81 7.89 ± 0.88 6.38 ± 0.84 10.42 ± 0.85
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.375 0.128 0.876
       Physical activity
        No 7,608 105.87 ± 1.78 66.39 ± 1.33 8.87 ± 0.46 10.02 ± 0.63 8.63 ± 0.61 11.95 ± 0.61
        Yes 5,528 97.59 ± 1.72 61.55 ± 1.30 9.24 ± 0.44 9.32 ± 0.68 6.70 ± 0.57 10.78 ± 0.61
        P-value < 0.001 0.004 0.540 0.349 0.012 0.128
       Obesity1)
        Underweight 759 94.78 ± 4.95 56.29 ± 3.40 7.83 ± 1.10 11.37 ± 2.07 9.14 ± 1.94 10.15 ± 1.44
        Normal 5,093 91.87 ± 1.68 57.58 ± 1.28 7.72 ± 0.48 9.66 ± 0.67 6.87 ± 0.58 10.04 ± 0.55
        Overweight 3,280 106.72 ± 2.26 65.98 ± 1.74 10.21 ± 0.62 10.25 ± 0.88 8.35 ± 0.76 11.93 ± 0.75
        Obese 5,112 111.91 ± 2.07 72.22 ± 1.57 10.14 ± 0.53 9.53 ± 0.87 8.10 ± 0.64 11.92 ± 0.81
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.610 0.378 0.032
      4. Household factors
       Marital status
        Single 3,692 95.54 ± 2.17 63.38 ± 1.75 7.39 ± 0.55 7.85 ± 0.65 6.81 ± 0.63 10.10 ± 0.73
        Married 10,536 105.44 ± 1.53 65.42 ± 1.12 9.83 ± 0.40 10.5 ± 0.70 8.12 ± 0.51 11.56 ± 0.53
        P-value < 0.001 0.270 < 0.001 0.002 0.083 0.074
       No. of household members
        1 2,407 107.15 ± 2.87 71.49 ± 2.13 9.25 ± 0.80 8.42 ± 0.78 6.96 ± 0.76 11.04 ± 0.96
        2 5,594 111.48 ± 2.25 66.72 ± 1.55 8.76 ± 0.49 12.51 ± 0.9 11.16 ± 0.81 12.33 ± 0.7
        3 3,278 96.86 ± 2.48 62.32 ± 1.88 8.99 ± 0.69 8.99 ± 0.79 5.76 ± 0.76 10.80 ± 0.84
        4 2,340 93.35 ± 2.69 59.53 ± 1.93 10.44 ± 0.82 7.61 ± 1.29 4.92 ± 0.87 10.85 ± 1.13
        5 489 98.8 ± 5.54 67.85 ± 4.36 7.27 ± 1.14 7.41 ± 1.61 9.34 ± 2.75 6.93 ± 2.14
        6 136 96.72 ± 11.54 63.33 ± 6.69 11.77 ± 3.4 12.77 ± 7.01 3.53 ± 1.70 5.32 ± 1.69
        P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 0.386 0.042 < 0.001 0.046
      Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
      30–64 age group ≥ 65 age group
      n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
      Gender
       Men 3,797 1.00 2,206 1.00
       Women 5,341 0.61 (0.56, 0.68) 2,900 0.60 (0.52, 0.69)
      BMI
       Low weight 417 1.05 (0.84, 1.32) 342 0.80 (0.60, 1.07)
       Normal weight 3,387 1.00 1,706 1.00
       Overweight 1,987 1.19 (1.03, 1.37) 1,293 1.03 (0.86, 1.24)
       Obese 3,347 1.22 (1.08, 1.36) 1,765 1.10 (0.93, 1.29)
      Education level
       Under middle school 980 1.00 3,166 1.00
       High school 3,158 0.88 (0.72, 1.06) 1,072 1.04 (0.87, 1.25)
       Beyond college 4,883 0.83 (0.68, 1.01) 567 0.77 (0.61, 0.97)
      Household income
       Low 687 1.00 2,233 1.00
       Middle-low 1,986 1.22 (0.98, 1.53) 1,498 1.06 (0.88, 1.26)
       Middle-high 2,919 1.16 (0.92, 1.45) 864 0.93 (0.75, 1.14)
       High 3,518 1.10 (0.88, 1.36) 490 0.86 (0.64, 1.15)
      Alcohol consumption
       No 3,885 1.00 3,279 1.00
       Yes 5,170 1.30 (1.17, 1.44) 1,651 1.29 (1.11, 1.49)
      Smoking status
       Never smoker 5,452 1.00 3,126 1.00
       Past smoker 2,087 1.38 (1.22, 1.55) 1,356 1.46 (1.24, 1.73)
       Current smoker 1,513 1.35 (1.18, 1.55) 439 1.31 (1.00, 1.72)
      Physical activity
       Inactive 4,487 1.00 3,121 1.00
       Active 4,063 0.95 (0.85, 1.05) 1,465 1.02 (0.88, 1.19)
      Residential area
       Urban 7,505 1.00 3,537 1.00
       Rural 1,633 1.28 (1.12, 1.46) 1,569 1.28 (1.06, 1.54)
      Marital status
       Single 2,088 1.00 1,604 1.00
       Married 7,043 0.99 (0.87, 1.11) 3,493 1.38 (1.19, 1.62)
      Eating alone
       None 1,852 1.00 1,995 1.00
       1/day 3,854 0.78 (0.68, 0.90) 1,041 0.90 (0.74, 1.08)
       ≥ 2/day 3,432 0.67 (0.58, 0.78) 2,070 0.76 (0.65, 0.90)
      Dining out frequency
       ≥ 1/day 2,031 1.00 219 1.00
       1–6/week 5,397 0.84 (0.74, 0.94) 1,846 0.85 (0.59, 1.22)
       1–3/month 1,367 0.79 (0.67, 0.93) 1,853 0.97 (0.68, 1.39)
       Scarcely 343 0.86 (0.64, 1.15) 1,188 0.91 (0.63, 1.33)
      Meal frequency
       3/day 5,630 1.00 4,305 1.00
       1–2/day 3,508 0.85 (0.76, 0.94) 801 0.70 (0.59, 0.83)
      Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
      Total Men Women
      n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
      Age (year)
       30–64 9,138 1.00 3,797 1.00 5,341 1.00
       ≥ 65 5,106 1.52 (1.39, 1.66) 2,206 1.57 (1.36, 1.82) 2,900 1.50 (1.35, 1.66)
      BMI
       Low weight 759 0.93 (0.78, 1.10) 213 1.10 (0.74, 1.60) 546 0.87 (0.71, 1.07)
       Normal weight 5,093 1.00 1,690 1.00 3,403 1.00
       Overweight 3,280 1.07 (0.96, 1.20) 1,564 1.09 (0.90, 1.31) 1,716 1.10 (0.95, 1.27)
       Obese 5,112 1.09 (0.99, 1.20) 2,536 1.18 (1.00, 1.39) 2,576 1.08 (0.95, 1.22)
      Education level
       Under middle school 4,146 1.00 1,428 1.00 2,718 1.00
       High school 4,230 1.04 (0.92, 1.18) 1,816 1.22 (0.99, 1.52) 2,414 0.88 (0.75, 1.04)
       Beyond college 5,450 0.88 (0.77, 1.02) 2,596 1.00 (0.80, 1.24) 2,854 0.75 (0.63, 0.90)
      Household income
       Low 2,920 1.00 1,072 1.00 1,848 1.00
       Middle-low 3,484 1.26 (1.11, 1.44) 1,396 1.41 (1.12, 1.79) 2,088 1.16 (0.99, 1.36)
       Middle-high 3,783 1.19 (1.03, 1.37) 1,673 1.41 (1.12, 1.78) 2,110 1.05 (0.88, 1.24)
       High 4,008 1.14 (0.98, 1.32) 1,848 1.36 (1.08, 1.70) 2,160 0.99 (0.83, 1.18)
      Alcohol consumption
       No 7,164 1.00 2,092 1.00 5,072 1.00
       Yes 6,821 1.20 (1.10, 1.31) 3,821 1.03 (1.02, 1.03) 3,000 1.04 (0.94, 1.15)
      Smoking status
       Never smoker 8,578 1.00 1,325 1.00 7,253 1.00
       Past smoker 3,443 1.08 (0.95, 1.22) 2,922 1.10 (0.93, 1.30) 521 1.01 (0.82, 1.24)
       Current smoker 1,952 1.06 (0.92, 1.23) 1,656 1.12 (0.94, 1.35) 296 0.90 (0.69, 1.17)
      Physical activity
       Inactive 7,608 1.00 3,076 1.00 4,532 1.00
       Active 5,528 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) 2,435 1.06 (0.92, 1.23) 3,093 0.89 (0.80, 0.99)
      Residential area
       Urban 11,042 1.00 4,595 1.00 6,447 1.00
       Rural 3,202 1.24 (1.09, 1.40) 1,408 1.25 (1.05, 1.50) 1,794 1.23 (1.07, 1.41)
      Marital status
       Single 3,692 1.00 1,225 1.00 2,467 1.00
       Married 10,536 1.16 (1.06, 1.27) 4,772 1.02 (0.87, 1.21) 5,764 1.21 (1.08, 1.35)
      Eating alone
       None 3,847 1.00 1,887 1.00 1,960 1.00
       1/day 4,895 0.83 (0.74, 0.92) 2,313 0.79 (0.66, 0.94) 2,582 0.88 (0.76, 1.02)
       ≥ 2/day 5,502 0.73 (0.65, 0.82) 1,803 0.79 (0.66, 0.95) 3,699 0.71 (0.62, 0.81)
      Dining out frequency
       ≥ 1/day 2,250 1.00 1,435 1.00 815 1.00
       1–6/week 7,243 0.93 (0.83, 1.04) 3,005 0.89 (0.76, 1.04) 4,238 0.98 (0.83, 1.17)
       1–3/month 3,220 0.96 (0.83, 1.10) 1,110 0.74 (0.59, 0.94) 2,110 1.14 (0.95, 1.37)
       Scarcely 1,531 0.87 (0.73, 1.05) 453 0.65 (0.48, 0.89) 1,078 1.10 (0.87, 1.39)
      Meal frequency
       3/day 9,935 1.00 4,166 1.00 5,769 1.00
       1–2/day 4,309 0.77 (0.70, 0.84) 1,837 0.73 (0.63, 0.85) 2,472 0.81 (0.72, 0.90)
      Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
      30–64 age group ≥ 65 age group
      n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
      Gender
       Men 3,797 1.00 2,206 1.00
       Women 5,341 0.64 (0.56, 0.73) 2,900 0.60 (0.47, 0.76)
      BMI
       Low weight 417 1.11 (0.87, 1.41) 342 0.73 (0.54, 0.99)
       Normal weight 3,387 1.00 1,706 1.00
       Overweight 1,987 1.11 (0.96, 1.29) 1,293 0.99 (0.82, 1.20)
       Obese 3,347 1.12 (1.00, 1.26) 1,765 1.04 (0.87, 1.24)
      Education level
       Under middle school 980 1.00 3,166 1.00
       High school 3,158 0.87 (0.71, 1.07) 1,072 0.99 (0.81, 1.21)
       Beyond college 4,883 0.83 (0.68, 1.03) 567 0.77 (0.59, 1.00)
      Household income
       Low 687 1.00 2,233 1.00
       Middle-low 1,986 1.25 (0.99, 1.58) 1,498 0.96 (0.79, 1.15)
       Middle-high 2,919 1.18 (0.93, 1.50) 864 0.87 (0.68, 1.12)
       High 3,518 1.16 (0.92, 1.47) 490 0.79 (0.56, 1.44)
      Alcohol consumption
       No 3,885 1.00 3,279 1.00
       Yes 5,170 1.23 (1.10, 1.37) 1,651 1.22 (1.03, 1.45)
      Smoking status
       Never smoker 5,452 1.00 3,126 1.00
       Past smoker 2,087 1.33 (1.16, 1.51) 1,356 1.38 (1.14, 1.67)
       Current smoker 1,513 1.23 (1.06, 1.42) 439 1.20 (0.88, 1.62)
      Physical activity
       Inactive 4,487 1.00 3,121 1.00
       Active 4,063 0.96 (0.86, 1.07) 1,465 1.05 (0.90, 1.22)
      Residential area
       Urban 7,505 1.00 3,537 1.00
       Rural 1,633 1.29 (1.12, 1.50) 1,569 1.36 (1.11, 1.66)
      Marital status
       Single 2,088 1.00 1,604 1.00
       Married 7,043 0.98 (0.84, 1.14) 3,493 1.32 (1.02, 1.69)
      Eating alone
       None 1,852 1.00 1,995 1.00
       1/day 3,854 0.77 (0.67, 0.89) 1,041 0.97 (0.80, 1.19)
       ≥ 2/day 3,432 0.69 (0.59, 0.80) 2,070 0.85 (0.69, 1.05)
      Dining out frequency
       ≥ 1/day 2,031 1.00 219 1.00
       1–6/week 5,397 0.86 (0.75, 0.97) 1,846 0.85 (0.58, 1.25)
       1–3/month 1,367 0.88, 0.73, 1.06) 1,853 0.93 (0.63, 1.35)
       Scarcely 343 0.85 (0.62, 1.17) 1,188 0.91 (0.61, 1.37)
      Meal frequency
       3/day 5,630 1.00 4,305 1.00
       1–2/day 3,508 0.81 (0.72, 0.90) 801 0.68 (0.56, 0.82)
      Related factors Total kimchi ≥ 40 g/day vs. < 40 g/day
      Total Men Women
      n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI) n OR (95% CI)
      Age (year)
       30–64 9,138 1.00 3,797 1.00 5,341 1.00
       ≥ 65 5,106 1.33 (1.18, 1.51) 2,206 1.42 (1.18, 1.71) 2,900 1.09 (0.93, 1.28)
      BMI
       Low weight 759 0.93 (0.78, 1.12) 213 1.10 (0.73, 1.68) 546 0.89 (0.72, 1.11)
       Normal weight 5,093 1.00 1,690 1.00 3,403 1.00
       Overweight 3,280 1.09 (0.96, 1.22) 1,564 1.03 (0.85, 1.24) 1,716 1.07 (0.92, 1.24)
       Obese 5,112 1.10 (1.00, 1.21) 2,536 1.09 (0.92, 1.29) 2,576 1.03 (0.90, 1.17)
      Education level
       Under middle school 4,146 1.00 1,428 1.00 2,718 1.00
       High school 4,230 1.01 (0.88, 1.16) 1,816 1.13 (0.89, 1.42) 2,414 0.88 (0.74, 1.05)
       Beyond college 5,450 0.90 (0.77, 1.05) 2,596 0.91 (0.71, 1.16) 2,854 0.76 (0.63, 0.91)
      Household income
       Low 2,920 1.00 1,072 1.00 1,848 1.00
       Middle-low 3,484 1.17 (1.02, 1.36) 1,396 1.33 (1.03, 1.73) 2,088 1.07 (0.90, 1.26)
       Middle-high 3,783 1.13 (0.96, 1.32) 1,673 1.35 (1.04, 1.76) 2,110 0.98 (0.82, 1.19)
       High 4,008 1.12 (0.95, 1.32) 1,848 1.34 (1.03, 1.75) 2,160 0.95 (0.79, 1.15)
      Alcohol consumption
       No 7,164 1.00 2,092 1.00 5,072 1.00
       Yes 6,821 1.24 (1.13, 1.35) 3,821 1.43 (1.23, 1.65) 3,000 1.03 (0.93, 1.15)
      Smoking status
       Never smoker 8,578 1.00 1,325 1.00 7,253 1.00
       Past smoker 3,443 1.33 (1.19, 1.48) 2,922 1.02 (0.85, 1.22) 521 1.01 (0.81, 1.25)
       Current smoker 1,952 1.25 (1.09, 1.40) 1,656 0.97 (0.80, 1.18) 296 0.84 (0.64, 1.10)
      Physical activity
       Inactive 7,608 1.00 3,076 1.00 4,532 1.00
       Active 5,528 0.99 (0.90, 1.08) 2,435 1.08 (0.93, 1.25) 3,093 0.89 (0.80, 1.00)
      Residential area
       Urban 11,042 1.00 4,595 1.00 6,447 1.00
       Rural 3,202 1.32 (1.15, 1.50) 1,408 1.38 (1.12, 1.69) 1,794 1.24 (1.07, 1.44)
      Marital status
       Single 3,692 1.00 1,225 1.00 2,467 1.00
       Married 10,536 1.12 (1.00, 1.27) 4,772 0.95 (0.76, 1.18) 5,764 1.21 (1.06, 1.40)
      Eating alone
       None 3,847 1.00 1,887 1.00 1,960 1.00
       1/day 4,895 0.83 (0.74, 0.93) 2,313 0.77 (0.64, 0.92) 2,582 0.93 (0.79, 1.08)
       ≥ 2/day 5,502 0.73 (0.64, 0.83) 1,803 0.80 (0.65, 0.98) 3,699 0.76 (0.65, 0.88)
      Dining out frequency
       ≥ 1/day 2,250 1.00 1,435 1.00 815 1.00
       1–6/week 7,243 0.87 (0.77, 0.98) 3,005 0.89 (0.75, 1.06) 4,238 0.96 (0.80, 1.16)
       1–3/month 3,220 0.90 (0.77, 1.05) 1,110 0.79 (0.60, 1.02) 2,110 1.11 (0.91, 1.37)
       Scarcely 1,531 0.84 (0.69, 1.03) 453 0.65 (0.47, 0.92) 1,078 1.09 (0.84, 1.41)
      Meal frequency
       3/day 9,935 1.00 4,166 1.00 5,769 1.00
       1–2/day 4,309 0.78 (0.71, 0.85) 1,837 0.70 (0.60, 0.82) 2,472 0.83 (0.74, 0.93)
      Table 1. Kimchi consumption according to general factors

      Values are presented as weighted means ± standard errors (SE) for continuous variables and weighted percentages for categorical variables, accounting for the complex sampling design. Integrated weights for the period of 2022–2024 were applied.

      The numbers of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

      P-values for differences among survey years were calculated using linear regression models (PROC SURVEYREG) for continuous variables and Rao–Scott chi‑square tests (PROC SURVEYFREQ) for categorical variables.

      Obesity: Underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2), normal (18.5 kg/m2 < BMI ≤ 23 kg/m2), overweight (23 kg/m2 < BMI ≤ 25 kg/m2), obese (≥ 25 kg/m2).

      Table 2. Age-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024

      Numbers of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

      Adjusting for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), and total food intake (continuous).

      OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index.

      Table 3. Gender-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024

      Numbers of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

      Adjusted for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), and total food intake (continuous).

      OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval, BMI, body mass index.

      Table 4. Multivariable-adjusted age-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024

      The number of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

      Adjusting for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), total food intake (continuous), education level, household income, residential area, household composition (single-person household), smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity.

      OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval, BMI, body mass index.

      Table 5. Multivariable-adjusted gender-specific analysis of sociodemographic and health behavior factors associated with kimchi intake from 2022 to 2024

      The number of missing values were as follows: education level (n = 418), household income (n = 49), alcohol consumption (n = 259), smoking status (n = 271), physical activity (n = 1,108), and marital status (n = 16).

      Adjusting for age (continuous), total energy intake (continuous), total food intake (continuous), education level, household income, residential area, household composition (single-person household), smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity.

      OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval, BMI, body mass index.

      Table 1.

      Table 2.

      Table 3.

      Table 4.

      Table 5.

      Korean J Community Nutr : Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
      © The Korean Society of Community Nutrition.
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