Korean Journal of Community Nutrition

Research Articles

[English]
Arterial stiffness index, physical activity and food and nutrient intake: cross-sectional study in adults aged 40 years and older: Eun-A Kim, Yun-Mi Kim, Eun-Kyung Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2024;29(2):81-96. Published online April 24, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.29.2.81

Abstract PDF: Objectives
This study aimed to investigate arterial stiffness index, physical activity, and food and nutrient intake in middle-aged adults over 40 years when the incidence of cardiovascular disease begins to increase.
Methods
This study included 106 subjects (48 males and 58 females) aged between 40 and 64 years. The arterial stiffness index (brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity [baPWV], and ankle-brachial index [ABI]) were measured using a blood pressure pulse wave testing device. Physical activity was assessed using the Korean version of the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, and food and nutrient intake was calculated using the Food Frequency Questionnaire.
Results
The mean age of the subjects was 54.4 years. Although the ABI of the subjects was within the normal range, they were divided into tertiles to compare physical activity and food and nutrient intake. In males, the time spent on moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was significantly higher in T3 (600.6 min/week) than in T1 (304.4 min/week). In females, the time spent in sedentary behavior was significantly lower in T3 (294.5 min/week) than in T1 (472.1 min/week). In addition, the frequency of fish consumption was significantly higher in T3 (1.27 frequency/day) than in T1 (0.64 frequency/day) in females. Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and ω-3 fatty acid intake, adjusted for energy intake, were significantly positively correlated with ABI (r = 0.200 and r = 0.218, respectively).
Conclusions
High MVPA (in males), low sedentary behavior (in females), and PUFA and ω-3 fatty acid intake through fish consumption may be associated with low peripheral artery stiffness. Therefore, arteriosclerosis can be prevented through physical activity and proper dietary therapy.

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[Korean]
Estimation of the Usual Food Intake Distribution Reflecting the Consumption Frequency and a Comparison of the Proportion of Non-consumers: Based on the KNHANES 2009: Su Ji Ham, Dong Woo Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2021;26(4):296-306. Published online August 31, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2021.26.4.296

Objectives
The objective of this study was to estimate the distribution of the usual dietary intake of foods with respect to the probability of consumption derived from the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) of the 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES).
Methods
The intake quantity and frequency of 63 food items were assessed from the 2009 KNHANES which was completed by 7,708 participants. The participants completed one or two 24-h dietary recalls and one FFQ. The usual intake distribution was estimated using the multiple source method (MSM), and the proportion of nonconsumers was calculated through the usual intake distribution. This was then compared with the proportion of non-consumers from the 24-hour recall method.
Results
The difference in the proportion of non-consumers ranged from 2% to 82.9%, indicating that there is a very large difference based on food groups. The food groups in which the proportion of non-consumers did not differ was composed of foods consumed daily, such as ‘rice’, ‘cereal and barley’, and ‘Chinese cabbage and kimchi’, or foods with distinct palatability such as ‘coffee’ and ‘alcohol’. On the other hand, in the case of the food groups with a high difference in the proportion of non-consumers, most comprised fruits that emphasized seasonality.
Conclusions
In the case of foods or food groups that are occasionally consumed, it is desirable to use 2 recalls with additional FFQ data by combining the consumption frequency and the quantity consumed.

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Accuracy of 24-Hour Dietary Recalls among Free-Living Older Korean Adults: Validation against Weighed Intakes
Jieun Mun, Suyoung Kim, Kanghee Kim, Chaeyeon Nam, Sein Kim, Clara Y Park
The Journal of Nutrition.2025; 155(12): 4446. CrossRef
Fraction of cancer incidence and mortality attributable to dietary factors in Korea from 2015 to 2030
Hyun Jeong Cho, Jin Young Yoo, Ga-Eun Yie, An Na Kim, Soseul Sung, Sungji Moon, Youjin Hong, Sangjun Lee, Inah Kim, Kwang-Pil Ko, Sun-Seog Kweon, Jung Eun Lee, Sue K. Park
Epidemiology and Health.2025; 47: e2025065. CrossRef
Dietary Management of Obesity
Sang Hoon Lee, San Ha Kim, Sung Chul Park
The Korean Journal of Gastroenterology.2024; 83(3): 87. CrossRef

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[English]
Biochemical Characteristics and Dietary Intake according to the Frequency of Milk Consumption in Korean Adolescents: Data from the 2010~2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey: Ji Hyun Kim, Sook-Bae Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(6):485-501. Published online December 31, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.6.485

Abstract PDF

Objectives
The purpose of this study was to examine the biochemical characteristics and dietary intake of adolescents aged 12 to 18 years according to the frequency of milk consumption. Methods: Data from the 2010~2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used for the study. The study examined adolescents’ (12~18 years) demographic characteristics (house income level, residence region, skipping or not-skipping of breakfast/lunch/dinner, eatingout frequency), anthropometric characteristics (height, weight, weight status), biochemical characteristics (fasting plasma glucose, blood urea nitrogen, creatine, triglycerides, cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, hemoglobin, hematocrit) and nutrient intakes through quantitative and qualitative evaluation using the Korean Dietary Reference Intakes (KDRI), index of nutrition quality (INQ), nutrition adequacy ratio (NAR) of 3 groups (< 1/week, 1~6/week, 1/day) according to the frequency of milk consumption. Results: There were significant differences in gender and income levels among the 3 groups. There were no differences in height, weight, and weight status among groups. There were differences in biochemical characteristics and nutrient intake. In boys, there were differences in the mean of BUN and HDL-cholesterol, in quantitative intakes of riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus, potassium by KDRI levels, in qualitative intakes of riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus by INQ and riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus by NAR among 3 groups. In girls, there were differences in the mean of blood urea nitrogen, creatine, HDL-cholesterol, in quantitative intakes of protein, riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus by KDRI levels, in qualitative intakes of riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus by INQ and riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus by NAR among the 3 groups. Conclusions: In Korean adolescents, boys had a higher frequency of milk consumption than girls, and higher the income level, higher the frequency of milk consumption. Consumption of milk appeared to have a positive association with triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol, and indices related to muscle mass. Regular consumption of milk is an important factor in enhancing the intake of riboflavin, calcium, and phosphorus, which adolescents lack. The results of the study indicate a need to prepare an environment and education program to increase milk consumption in adolescents at home and school.

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Changes in Nutritional Status Through Low-Lactose Processed Milk Consumption in Korean Adults With Lactose Intolerance
Dong Hoon Jung, Gi Moon Nam, Chang Kyun Lee, Chul hong Kim, Hyun-San Lim, Ji Yeon Lee, Hee-Sook Lim
Clinical Nutrition Research.2025; 14(1): 30. CrossRef
Analysis of Dietary Behavior and Quality in Children and Adolescents with Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Using the Korean Nutrition Quotient Score
So Yoon Choi, Yoowon Kwon, Yoo Min Lee, In Hyuk Yoo, Tae Hyeong Kim, You Jin Choi, Su Jin Jeong
Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition.2025; 28(4): 256. CrossRef
Biochemical characteristics, nutrient intakes, and chronic disease risk according to the dietary fat energy ratio in middle-aged Korean: a cross-sectional study using data from the 7th (2016–2018) Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Ga-Hyeon Jeong, Sook-Bae Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(6): 528. CrossRef
Biochemical Characteristics and Dietary Intake according to Household Income Levels of Korean Adolescents: Using Data from the 6th (2013 ~ 2015) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Yu-Kyeong Kwon, Sook-Bae Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(6): 467. CrossRef

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Original Articles

[English]
Comparison of 24-hour Recalls with a Food Frequency Questionnaire in Assessing Coffee Consumption: The Health Examinees (HEXA) Study: An Na Kim, Jiyoung Youn, Hyun Jeong Cho, Taiyue Jin, Sangah Shin, Jung Eun Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(1):48-60. Published online February 29, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.48

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Most cohort studies used food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) to evaluate coffee consumption as it assesses habitual dietary patterns, whereas some studies have used the 24-hour recalls (24HR) as it elicits in-depth description of foods and the amount eaten. The aim of this study was to compare FFQs and 24HR to assess the consumption of various types of coffee.
METHODS
We included 25,904 participants aged 40 years or older from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study of the Korean Genome and Epidemiologic Study (KoGES). Each participant completed one FFQ and one-day (n=11,280) or two-day 24HR (n=14,624). We classified coffee types into: black coffee, coffee with sugar and cream, and coffee with sugar alone or cream alone. We compared the proportions of nondrinkers, black coffee, and coffee with sugar and cream through FFQ and 24HR.
RESULTS
Among those who completed one FFQ and one-day 24HR, 39.4% of â€œnondrinkersâ€ on one-day 24HR reported that they did not drink coffee on their FFQs. Whereas among those who complete two-day 24HR, 71.2% of â€œnondrinkersâ€ on two-day 24HR said that they did not drink coffee on their FFQs. Among those who completed one FFQ and oneday 24HR, 58.3% marked â€œblack coffeeâ€ on one-day 24HR said that they drank black coffee on their FFQs. Among those who complete two-day 24HR, 58.8% marked â€œblack coffeeâ€ on two-day 24HR said that they drank black coffee on their FFQs. The kappa coefficients and percent agreements were 0.4 and 59.6%, respectively, for the comparison of coffee intake between FFQ and one-day 24HR, and 0.6 and 72.8%, respectively, for the comparison of coffee intake between FFQ and two-day 24HR.
CONCLUSIONS
We found discrepancies between FFQs and 24HR in the types of coffee consumed. Such limitations should be considered when using the 24HR data to examine the effect of coffee consumption on disease development.

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Research Trends and Future Perspectives on Epigenetic Regulation of Food-derived Components for the Prevention of Chronic Diseases
Seon Kyeong Park, Jin-Taek Hwang
Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.2025; 54(4): 301. CrossRef
Fraction of cancer incidence and mortality attributable to dietary factors in Korea from 2015 to 2030
Hyun Jeong Cho, Jin Young Yoo, Ga-Eun Yie, An Na Kim, Soseul Sung, Sungji Moon, Youjin Hong, Sangjun Lee, Inah Kim, Kwang-Pil Ko, Sun-Seog Kweon, Jung Eun Lee, Sue K. Park
Epidemiology and Health.2025; 47: e2025065. CrossRef
Association Between Instant Coffee Consumption and the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Results From a Community-Based Prospective Cohort
Moon-Kyung Shin, Kyoung-Nam Kim
Journal of Korean Medical Science.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Genetic variation rs1121980 in the fat mass and obesity-associated gene (FTO) is associated with dietary intake in Koreans
Young Goh, Jeong-Hwa Choi
Food & Nutrition Research.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Coffee Consumption and the Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality in the Korean Population
Seong-Ah Kim, Li-Juan Tan, Sangah Shin
Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics.2021; 121(11): 2221. CrossRef

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[English]
Dietary Factors Associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in School-aged Children: Minji An, Hyojin An, Hwang Hyo Jeong, Ho Jang Kwon, Mina Ha, Yun Chul Hong, Soo Jong Hong, Se Young Oh; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(5):397-410. Published online October 31, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.5.397

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
An association between dietary patterns and mental health in children has been suggested in a series of studies, yet detailed analyses of dietary patterns and their effects on ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) are limited.
METHODS
We included 4569 children who had dietary intake data as part of the CHEER (Children's Health and Environmental Research) study conducted nationwide from 2005 to 2010. We assessed ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) by the DuPaul's ADHD Rating Scales and dietary intake by a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Using intake data, we constructed five dietary patterns: â€œPlant foods & fish,â€â€œSweets,â€â€œMeat & fish,â€â€œFruits & dairy products,â€ and â€œWheat based.â€ RESULTS: The overall proportion of ADHD was 12.3%. Boys (17.8%) showed a higher rate of ADHD than girls (6.5%). The total intake of calories (85 kcal) and plant fat (2g) in the ADHD group was significantly higher than that of the normal group. ADHD was significantly negatively associated with dietary habits such as having breakfast and meal frequency, and positively associated with eating speed, unbalanced diet, overeating, and rice consumption. Regarding dietary patterns, the â€œSweetsâ€ category was relevant to high ADHD risk (OR 1.59, 95% CI: 1.18, 2.15 for Q5 vs. Q1) in a linear relationship. An inverse, non-linear association was found between â€œFruits & dairy productsâ€ and ADHD (OR 0.55, 95% CI: 0.39, 0.76 for Q4 vs. Q1).
CONCLUSIONS
Our study confirms both positive and negative associations between diet and ADHD in elementary school age children. Moreover, linear or nonlinear associations between diet and ADHD draw attention to the possible threshold role of nutrients. Further studies may consider characteristics of diet in more detail to develop better intervention or management in terms of diet and health.

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Correlation of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with gut microbiota according to the dietary intake of Korean elementary school students
Tae-Hwan Jung, Hyo-Jeong Hwang, Kyoung-Sik Han, Regis Moreau
PLOS ONE.2022; 17(9): e0275520. CrossRef
Awareness and Practice of Sugar Reduction in School Foodservice and the Practice of Nutrition Education in Daegu
Suhyang Jang, Kilye Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(3): 167. CrossRef
Effect of Nutrition Education on Reduced Sugar Intake in Elementary School Students
Young-Mi Seo, Ok-Jin Park, Min-June Lee
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2021; 31(1): 14. CrossRef
Analysis of the consumer perception and related education effect on the reduction of sugar for elementary school students in Seoul and Gyeonggi-do
Ki Nam Kim, Jung Sug Lee, Jee-Seon Shim, Hae Kyung Chung, Hae Rang Chung, Moon-Jeong Chang
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2020; 53(3): 303. CrossRef

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[English]
Effect of Nutrition Education on the Eating Habits and Quality of Life of Gastric Cancer Outpatients Undergoing Gastrectomy: YoonHee Jung, Joomin Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(2):162-173. Published online April 30, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.2.162

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
This study examined the effects of nutrition education on the nutritional status, including eating habits and quality of life in gastric cancer patients undergoing a gastrectomy.
METHODS
Thirty one out-gastric resection patients at C University Hospital in Gwangju, Korea were enrolled in this study. The patients received an individualized nutritional counseling session, and the effects were assessed before and after a 3-month nutrition education intervention. Nutrition education for gastric cancer outpatients included the dietary guidelines (e.g., food intake), the level of nutrient intake, and nutrition support.
RESULTS
The patients had significantly improved serum albumin and hematocrit levels after nutrition education. Of the dietary habits, the meal time and amount of food compared to the first education were increased significantly. Of the changes in the food intake frequency, fish and meat, and vegetables and fruits intake were increased, but not at a statistically significant level. The score of eating habits related to the gastrectomy was improved significantly after nutrition education from 31.7 to 34.5. The composite scores for the quality of life were also improved significantly after the nutrition education program.
CONCLUSIONS
The nutrition education for gastric cancer outpatients may be crucial and efficient for improving their lifestyle.

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Evaluation of Irisin Levels in Cancer Anorexia Cachexia Syndrome and the Relationship between Nutrition Education and Quality of Life
Diler Us Altay, Duygu Mataracı Değirmenci, Salih Can Çelik, Abdullah Üner, Tevfik Noyan, Çağrı Akalın
Cumhuriyet Science Journal.2024; 45(4): 636. CrossRef

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[English]
Dietary Habits and Nutritional Status of Young Women according to Breakfast Frequency in Seoul: Da Mee Kim, Youl Ri Kim, Kyung Hee Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(2):102-115. Published online April 30, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.2.102

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Although breakfast is important to nutrition balance, prevention of overeating, and weight control, people in their 20s (males: 55.1%, females: 49.9%) were reported to have the highest rate of skipping breakfast in 2016 Korea Health Statistics. This study aims to examine dietary habits and nutrient intake depending on breakfast frequency among young women in Seoul.
METHODS
The subjects were 655 young women in Seoul from August to October 2016, and the survey was performed by using a questionnaire that included general characteristics, dietary habits, and eating behavior. Body composition was determined by bioelectric impedance analysis. Nutritional status was examined by the 24-hour recall method.
RESULTS
The participants were classified by breakfast intake frequency; â€˜â‰¥ 5 times/week (n=160)â€™, â€˜1â€“4 times/week (n=327)â€™, and â€˜breakfast skipping (n=168)â€™. The â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group had lower frequency and regularity of meals. In addition, the â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group had a higher frequency of eating-out and late-night meals. There was no difference in total calories between the â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group and other groups, but the â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group had significantly low carbohydrate and fiber intakes. The participants showed lower intakes of calories, fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin, folic acid, calcium, potassium, and zinc in comparison with recommended intakes. Especially, the â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group had significantly lower fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, potassium levels compared to the â€˜â‰¥ 5 times/weekâ€™ group. For Mean Adequacy Ratio (MAR), the â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group recorded a ratio of 0.60, which was lower than those of other groups. Index of Nutritional Quality (INQ) including fiber, vitamin C, calcium and phosphorus were significantly lower in the breakfast skipper group, compared to the breakfast eater group.
CONCLUSIONS
The â€˜breakfast skippingâ€™ group showed low regularity of meals and a high frequency of eating-out and late-night meals. The breakfast regular eater group showed high intake of micronutrients and quality of meals was high in general. Skipping breakfast could lower nutrient intake and quality of meals, which requires attention.

Citations

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Attributes of multiple concurrent functional gastrointestinal disorders in female university students in South Korea
Hyo Kyung Kim, Hyunjung Kim, Aram Lee
Women & Health.2024; 64(8): 674. CrossRef
Beliefs, self-efficacy, subjective norms, and eating behaviors according to the breakfast frequency among female university students in South Korea
Hye Jin Kim, Kyung Won Kim
Nutrition Research and Practice.2023; 17(6): 1170. CrossRef
Revision of Nutrition Quotient for Korean adults: NQ-2021
Sung-Min Yook, Young-Suk Lim, Jung-Sug Lee, Ki-Nam Kim, Hyo-Jeong Hwang, Sehyug Kwon, Ji-Yun Hwang, Hye-Young Kim
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2022; 55(2): 278. CrossRef
Association between Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Intake and Dietary Quality using Nutritional Quotient among Adults in Daegu, Korea
Kilye Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(5): 350. CrossRef
Dietary Life of Chinese International Students according to the Frequency of University Foodservice Use in Korea
Yan Cui, Hye-Jong Yoo, Injoo Choi, Jihyun Yoon
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2020; 25(4): 291. CrossRef
Development of Nutrition Quotient for Korean adults: item selection and validation of factor structure
Jung-Sug Lee, Hye-Young Kim, Ji-Yun Hwang, Sehyug Kwon, Hae Rang Chung, Tong-Kyung Kwak, Myung-Hee Kang, Young-Sun Choi
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2018; 51(4): 340. CrossRef

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[English]
Comparison Between Semi-Quantitative Frequency Methods and 7-day Dietary Records Methods in Food and Nutrition Intake Status For Hemodialysis Patients: Dong Ryeol Ryu, Jung Hyun Kim, Hyun Jung Kim, Min Sook Kyung, Jung Tak Park; Korean J Community Nutr 2017;22(5):426-440. Published online October 31, 2017; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2017.22.5.426

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
The valid assessment of food and nutrients intakes using appropriate dietary intake method is necessary to improve the nutritional status of the hemodialysis (HD) patients. This study was conducted to compare the method between newly developed, semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (Semi-FFQ) and 7-day dietary records (7-DRs) for hemodialysis patients.
METHODS
We conducted both methods on 53 maintenance HD patients in two university hospitals. We calibrated the frequency, portion size and daily intake of 47 food items reported in Semi-FFQ. The food and nutrients intake was compared and the correlation of the two methods was analyzed. Also each nutrient intake was compared to recommended dietary allowance for Korean (KDRIs) and recommended nutrient reference value for HD patients.
RESULTS
Energy and energy-yielding nutrients intakes were significantly higher in the two methods (p<0.01). These support the possible reliability between Semi-FFQ and 7-DRs that is similar with regard to most mineral and vitamin intakes. Thus, the Semi-FFQ used in this study for the assessment of nutrient intakes of HD patients can be reliable for the assessment of the nutrient intake along with the 7-DRs. The correlation coefficients were higher for foods consumed daily, such as steamed rice, meat and chicken, bean, egg, milk, coffee and alcohol than for those of foods eaten rarely (p<0.01).
CONCLUSIONS
The Semi-FFQ used in this study can be a reliable tool for the assessment of the HD patients' nutrient intake along with the 7-DRs, despite its limitations.

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Comparison of dietary intake patterns in hemodialysis patients by nutritional status: A cross-sectional analysis
Ji Eun Lee, Hyun-Jung Kim, Mi Jung Lee, Young Eun Kwon, Min-Sook Kyung, Jung-Tak Park, Jung Pyo Lee, Su-Hyun Kim, Jung-Hyun Kim, Hyung Jung Oh, Dong-Ryeol Ryu
Kidney Research and Clinical Practice.2020; 39(2): 202. CrossRef
Comparison of hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients’ dietary behaviors
Seon-Mi Kim, Byung Chin Kang, Hyun-Jung Kim, Min-Sook Kyung, Hyung Jung Oh, Jung-Hyun Kim, Oran Kwon, Dong-Ryeol Ryu
BMC Nephrology.2020;[Epub] CrossRef

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[English]
An Evaluation of Chronic Disease Risk Based on the Percentage of Energy from Carbohydrates and the Frequency of Vegetable Intake in the Korean Elderly: Using the 2007-2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey: Yoon Suk Suh, Min Seon Park, Young Jin Chung; Korean J Community Nutr 2015;20(1):41-52. Published online February 28, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2015.20.1.41

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Korean elderly people are known to consume diets high in carbohydrates low in vegetables compared to other age groups. This study evaluated the chronic disease risks and nutritional status in this group based on the percentage of energy from carbohydrates and the frequency of vegetable intake.
METHODS
Using the 2007~2009 Korean National Health Nutrition Examination Survey data, except those who were undergoing treatment for chronic disease, final 1,487 subjects aged 65 and older were divided into 4 groups: moderate carbohydrate energy ratio of 55~70% and low frequency of vegetable intake defined as less than 5 times per day (MCLV), moderate carbohydrate ratio and high frequency of vegetable intake more than 5 times (MCHV), high carbohydrate energy ratio above 70% and low frequency of vegetable intake less than 5 times (HCLV), and high carbohydrate ratio and high frequency of vegetable intake more than 5 times (HCHV). All data were analyzed after the application of weighted value, using a general linear model or logistic regression.
RESULTS
More than half of Korean elderly consumed diets with HCLV, and this group showed poor nutritional status and lower frequency of intake of most food items, but with no risk of chronic disease such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease or anemia probably due to low intake of energy. On the contrary, MCHV group with a high percentage of energy from fat and protein showed the highest intake of energy and most nutrients, the highest frequency of intake of most of food items and a tendency of high risk of abdominal obesity, being followed by the MCLV group. Meanwhile, HCHV group showed a tendency of high risk of hypertension, followed by HCLV group with low frequency of intake of vegetables compared with the two moderate carbohydrate groups.
CONCLUSIONS
The results suggested that the percentage of energy from carbohydrate and the frequency of vegetable intake affected the nutritional status, but not significantly affected the risk of chronic disease in Korean elderly. Further studies using more detailed category of % energy from carbohydrates and of type and amount of vegetables with consideration of individual energy intake level, excessive or deficient, are needed to confirm the results.

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Association of Dietary Quality with Subjective Health-Related Perception and Chronic Diseases According to Age Segmentation of Korean Elderly
Sojeong Lee, Seungmin Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(5): 363. CrossRef
Energy big data acquisition and application based on service portfolio quality
Pingping Sun, Lingang Gu
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments.2021; 45: 101134. CrossRef
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Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2020; 25(6): 502. CrossRef
Analyzing the Relative Importance for the Development Plan of the Public Health Care System
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The Quality of a Traditional Dietary Pattern in Relation to Metabolic Syndrome in Elderly South Koreans
Chorong Oh, Jaekyung No
Journal of Obesity & Metabolic Syndrome.2018; 27(4): 254. CrossRef
Development of a Food Exchange Table and Food Pattern for Nutritionally Balanced Menu Planning
Yun Ahn, Ikhyun Yeo, Sangyun Lee, Kisun Nam
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2018; 23(5): 411. CrossRef
Estimation of Usual Intake and Assessment of Nutrient Intake for Korean Adolescents: Analysis of the 2010-2012 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Meeyoung Kim, Jihyun Yoon
Family and Environment Research.2017; 55(4): 385. CrossRef

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[English]
Factors Associated with Fruit and Vegetable Consumption of Subjects Having a History of Stroke: Using 5th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010, 2011): Sung Je Kim, Mi Kyung Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(5):468-478. Published online October 31, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.5.468

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Intake of fruits and vegetables has protective effects against stroke attack. This study intended to examine the status of consuming fruits and vegetables and to find out which factors may influence the frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables in individuals with a history of stroke.
METHODS
The data of 208 subjects from 5th (2010, 2011) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES) who reported a stroke diagnosis was used for analysis. To identify major factors influencing the consumption of fruits and vegetables, a classification-tree analysis was carried out.
RESULTS
Among those who reported a stroke diagnosis, the frequencies of consumption of fruits and vegetables were influenced by their age, place of residence (urban or rural), economic status, educational level, occupation, number of family members, frequency of eating out, and having meals (breakfast or lunch) with family members. Two factors from fruits and three factors from vegetables were generated by exploratory factor analyses. Urban residents ate fruits and vegetables more frequently in all factors than rural residents. Eating frequencies of 'seasonal fruits (orange, apple, strawberry, melon, pear and watermelon)', 'easily-accessible fruits (persimmon, tangerine, grape, peach, banana)', and 'Western-style vegetables (cabbage, mushroom, carrot, tomato, spinach)' were influenced by the socioeconomic status. Eating frequencies of 'Korean-style vegetables (bean sprout, radish leaves, pumpkin/squash, sea weed)', 'preserved vegetables (Korean cabbage, radish, laver, cucumber)' were influenced by having breakfast with amily members.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study suggested that by eating more fruits and vegetables, more preventive effects against secondary stroke attack are expected in stroke patients who live in the rural areas and who do not eat breakfast with family members. In addition, more outreach and education programs are needed for them.

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Classification tree analysis for an intersectionality-informed identification of population groups with non-daily vegetable intake
Emily Mena, Gabriele Bolte, Christine Holmberg, Philipp Jaehn, Sibille Merz, Alexander Rommel, Anke-Christine Saß, Kathleen Pöge, Sarah Strasser, Gabriele Bolte, Emily Mena
BMC Public Health.2021;[Epub] CrossRef
Functional and nutraceutical properties of pumpkin – a review
Simran Kaur, Anil Panghal, M.K. Garg, Sandeep Mann, Sunil K. Khatkar, Poorva Sharma, Navnidhi Chhikara
Nutrition & Food Science.2019; 50(2): 384. CrossRef
Development of a Food Exchange Table and Food Pattern for Nutritionally Balanced Menu Planning
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Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2018; 23(5): 411. CrossRef
Factors affecting vegetable preference in adolescents: stages of change and social cognitive theory
Taejung Woo, Kyung-Hea Lee
Nutrition Research and Practice.2017; 11(4): 340. CrossRef
Association between Grapes Intake and Diabetic Retinopathy: Inhibitory Effect of Resveratol on Diabetic Retinopathy
Bo Young Lee, Donghyun Jee
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[English]
The Differences in Preference for Vegetables among Primary School to University Students in Gyeongbuk Area: Yun Kyeong Lee, Youngnam Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(5):415-424. Published online October 31, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.5.415

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Vegetables are the most left over side dishes in school lunch programs. This study intended to analyze the differences in preference for vegetables among the students of different age groups in order to determine potential ways of increasing vegetable consumption in this study group.
METHODS
A total of 308 primary to university students in Gyeongbuk area were recruited and a questionnaire-based survey was conducted. The preference score (7-Likert scale: very much dislike (1)~so-so (4)~like very much (7)) and intake frequency (5-Likert scale) of 48 kinds of vegetables in 4 vegetable groups, such as vegetable (fruit-, root-, leaf-, and stalk- vegetable), seaweeds, mushrooms, and kimchi were investigated, and data were analyzed by SPSS WIN (ver 12.0).
RESULTS
The preference scores of vegetables except for seaweeds were significantly different among school groups, university was the highest, followed by high school. Primary and middle school students showed the lowest preference score, especially for leaf- and stalk- vegetables. The preference score for seaweeds was the highest of 5.28, followed by kimchi of 4.99. With regard to kimchis, the preference score was the highest in university', followed by high school, middle school, and primary school' was the lowest. The number of vegetables with < 4.0 preference score was the highest in primary school of 16, 15 in middle school, 11 in high school, and 7, the lowest in university. The vegetable with preference score of < 4.0 in all 4 school groups were mallow, chard, bud, radish leaf, mugwort, butterbur and sweet potato stalk. With regard to the intake frequency of vegetables, kimchis, an indispensable part of the Korean diet, was the highest of 2 times/day, followed by cooked vegetables of 1.5 times/day. The correlation coefficients between preference scores and intake frequencies were statistically significant in all groups of vegetables. As for the coefficient of variation (CV) of preference score, primary school' was the highest and university' was the lowest. The number of vegetables with high CV and high inexperience were highest in primary school students.
CONCLUSIONS
Providing more opportunities for consuming a variety of vegetables, such as leaf- and stalk- vegetable, it may be possible to increase vegetable consumption, especially for the primary school students.

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Dietary Lifestyle Status of Adolescents: Analysis of Large-Scale Survey Data in Korea
Soo Jin Lee, Ho Kyung Ryu
Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.2021; 50(1): 95. CrossRef
Analysis of the Dietary Life of Adolescents by Household Types in Korea using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Soo Jin Lee, Ho Kyung Ryu
The Korean Journal of Community Living Science.2021; 32(2): 285. CrossRef
Consumption Status of Foods Using Kimchi by Korean Adults: Analysis of the 2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Mi-Kyung Choi
Korean Journal of Food and Cookery Science.2018; 34(3): 319. CrossRef
Study on Perception and Preference of Vegetable Intake of Alienated Children in Gyeongbuk Area according to Gender and Grade
Won-Hui Choe, Eun-Soon Lyu, Kyung-A Lee
Korean Journal of Food and Cookery Science.2018; 34(4): 394. CrossRef
The Development of Institutional Food-Service Menu with Temple Food
Sim-Yeol Lee, Jin-A Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2015; 20(5): 338. CrossRef

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[English]
Comparisons of Consumption Attitude toward Vegetables and Fragrance Vegetables Preference among Primary School to University Students in Gyeongbuk Area: Yun Kyeong Lee, Youngnam Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(3):223-230. Published online June 30, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.3.223

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to provide the preliminary data for dietary education to increase students' vegetables intake.
METHODS
The attitude of vegetables consumption (5-Likert scale), preference score (7-Likert scale) and eating frequency (5-Likert scale) of 9 fragrance vegetables were investigated by survey questionnaire. A total of 370 students enrolled in primary, middle, high schools, and university participated in the study and data were analyzed by the SPSS WIN (ver 12.0).
RESULTS
About 40% of those surveyed answered that they do not eat some kinds of foods and 16% of students do not eat vegetables, the most unfavorable foods. The students in all groups (primary 2nd and 5th, middle and high school, university students) answered that they liked vegetables with the highest score in university students, and they did not often eat fragrance vegetables. Lower age student group, especially primary school 2nd showed more positive attitudes of eating challenge toward no experience, bad taste, and dislike but nutritious vegetable foods. The most important factor of vegetable preference was taste, the biggest reason of both like and dislike. Only 4 students designated nutrition as for vegetable dislike reason, means that all students knew about the nutritional importance of vegetables. It was shown that the color and flavor of the vegetables act as dislikable reason rather than likable reason. The significant correlations between preference score and intake frequency of fragrance vegetables were confirmed, and the younger the students the greater the correlation coefficient.
CONCLUSIONS
Thus providing more chance to experience vegetables, such as fragrance vegetables and education about the importance of balanced diet will be an effective way of increasing vegetables intake, and the younger the students the greater the education effect.

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Analysis of socio-demographic and dietary factors associated with fruit and vegetable consumption among Korean adolescents: use of data from the 7th and 8th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2016–2019)
Bokyeong Yun, Seunghee Kye
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2024; 57(3): 292. CrossRef
Factors affecting preference of vegetable in elementary school students: based on social cognitive theory
Su Hyeon Cha, Ho Kyung Ryu
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2019; 52(3): 285. CrossRef
Relative Importance of Selection Attributes in Garlic-Based Health Functional Food Using Conjoint Analysis
Jisun Lee
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2019; 29(4): 336. CrossRef
Estimation of Usual Intake and Assessment of Nutrient Intake for Korean Adolescents: Analysis of the 2010-2012 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Meeyoung Kim, Jihyun Yoon
Family and Environment Research.2017; 55(4): 385. CrossRef
The Differences in Preference for Vegetables among Primary School to University Students in Gyeongbuk Area
Yun Kyeong Lee, Youngnam Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2014; 19(5): 415. CrossRef

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[English]
Interrelations Among Snack Preference, Purchasing Behaviors and Intake in Upper Grade Elementary School Students: Compared by the Gender and TV Watching Time: Eun Sil Her; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(5):429-441. Published online October 31, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.5.429

Abstract PDF

This study was conducted to examine the interrelations among snack preference, purchasing behavior and intake of fifth and sixth grade students in elementary schools in Gyeongnam province. Frequency of snack intake was the highest in those who reported 'once a day' (45.6%) snack habit. Longer-time television viewers also showed higher frequency of snack intake than shorter-time viewers. Thirty-three percent of students purchased snacks by themselves and the frequency of snack purchasing had a significant positive relationship with TV watching time (p < 0.01). The main reason, place and time of eating snacks were 'hunger' (79.2%), their home environment (50.9%) and 'after school hours' (89.7%). The favorite snack was 'ice cream' and, this snack habit was significantly different by gender of the child (p < 0.01) and TV watching time (p < 0.01). 'Milk and dairy products' scored highest (3.47) in snack intake frequency among longer-time TV viewers (> 2hr) compared to shorter-time TV viewers and this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). The snack preference score was correlated positively (r = 0.454) with the intake frequency for snack and its explanation power (R2) was 20.5%. With regard to snack purchase behaviors, the scores of 'checking the expiration date' and 'comparing the price with similar products' were high (in what group?). Female students (p < 0.001) and shorter-time TV viewers (< 2hr) (p < 0.01) had a more reasonable purchasing behavior. The total score of preference was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in shorter-timeTV viewers (< 2hr). In the correlation between snack purchasing behaviors and intake frequency, attractiveness (r = 0.208, p < 0.001) and preference (r = 0.330, p < 0.001) showed significant positive correlations. The result of regression analysis, preference only was selected (R2= 0.108).

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The relationship between smartphone usage and eating behavior for elementary school students in Gangneung, South Korea: cross-sectional study
Minji Kim, Meera Jang
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(4): 278. CrossRef
Association between eating habits, sweet taste assessment, and high-sugar food consumption among elementary school students in Daegu: a descriptive study
Min-Jung Kim, Eun-Kyung Shin, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2023; 28(2): 104. CrossRef
A Comparative Study of the Dietary Behavior of Adults Aged 20 and Over according to theMukbangViewing Time
Ha-Yan Nam, Bok-Mi Jung
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(2): 93. CrossRef
A Study on the Development of the Goals and Contents System of Healthy Dietary Education Program for After-School Care in Lower Grade in Elementary School
Jung-Hyun Kim, Myoung Hee Lee, Okjin Park, Kyung Sook Choi
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2019; 24(1): 24. CrossRef
Eating patterns of children's favorite foods and its related factors among elementary, middle, and high school students in Korea
YuJin Lee, Seungmin Lee, KyoungAe Lee, Kyung-Hea Lee, Inkyung Baik
Nutrition Research and Practice.2017; 11(6): 517. CrossRef
Lifestyle, Dietary Behavior and Snack Preference of Upper-grade Elementary School Students in Cheongju according to the Usage Time of Smartphones
Hayeon Kim, Munkyong Pae
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2017; 22(1): 40. CrossRef
Association of Interpersonal Relationships with Preference and Intake Frequency of Snack with a Focus on Obesity Index and Snack Preparations in Upper Grade Elementary School Students
Eun Sil Her
The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition.2015; 28(2): 178. CrossRef
Perceptions and Use of Premium Snacks and Associated Factors in School Aged Children and Their Mothers in Kyung-Ki Area
Hye-Young Yang, Hyo-Suk Lee, Jayong Chung
Korean Journal of Health Promotion.2014; 14(3): 121. CrossRef

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[English]
A Study on Relationship between Socio-demographic Factors and Food Consumption Frequencies among Adolescents in South Korea: Using the Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey from 2011: Ji Eun Jo, Hae Ryun Park, Soo Bin Jeon, Jin Sil Kim, Go Eun Park, Yang Li, Young Suk Lim, Jinah Hwang; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(2):165-176. Published online April 30, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.2.165

Abstract PDF

The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of socio-demographic factors on food consumption frequencies among adolescents in Korea. Data were obtained from the Seventh Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey (2011 KYRBS), a nationwide representative sample of 75,643 (37,873 males and 37,770 females) middle and high school students. It was carried out as a self-administered on-line survey. The frequency of eating breakfast was 4.8 times per week for middle school students and 4.6 times per week for high school students (p < 0.001). Higher levels of perceived household economic status, family affluence scale (FAS) and education attainment of mother were associated with more frequent breakfast eating. The frequencies of consumption of vegetables and milk were higher in males than in females (p < 0.001). The frequency of consumption fruits was higher in females than in males (p < 0.01). Higher levels of perceived household economic status, FAS and education attainment of mother were associated with more frequent consumption of vegetable, fruits and milk. The frequencies of consumption of soda, fast food and instant noodls were higher in males than in females (p < 0.001). The frequency of consumption of snacks was higher in females than in males. Adolescents with lower levels of FAS and education attainment of mother were at risk for skipping breakfast and consuming of soda, fast food and instant noodls more frequently. Whereas, adolescents with higher levels of FAS, education attainment of mother were more likely to be frequent consumers of vegetable, fruits and milk. These findings demonstrated that being high school students and belonging to lower level of socio-economic status (SES) were associated with undesirable food habits.

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Mediating Effects of Mukbang and Cookbang Viewing on the Association Between SNS Use and Adolescents’ Food-Related Lifestyle
Soo Jin Lee
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Changes in eating behaviors according to household income in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: findings from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Hye Ah Lee, Ho Jung Lee, Bomi Park, Yoonhee Shin, Hyunjin Park, Hyesook Park
Epidemiology and Health.2022; 44: e2022102. CrossRef
Biochemical Characteristics and Dietary Intake according to Household Income Levels of Korean Adolescents: Using Data from the 6th (2013 ~ 2015) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Yu-Kyeong Kwon, Sook-Bae Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(6): 467. CrossRef
Trends in Beverage Consumption and Related Demographic Factors and Obesity among Korean Children and Adolescents
Su Bin Hwang, SoHyun Park, Guang-Ri Jin, Jae Hyun Jung, Hyeon Ju Park, Su Hyun Lee, Sangah Shin, Bog-Hieu Lee
Nutrients.2020; 12(9): 2651. CrossRef
Convenience Store Use and the Health of Urban Adolescents in Seoul, South Korea
Nan-He Yoon, Changwoo Shon
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2020; 17(18): 6486. CrossRef
Factors influencing the consumption of convenience foods among Korean adolescents: analysis of data from the 15th (2019) Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey
Seul Ki Park, Ji Hyun Lee
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2020; 53(3): 255. CrossRef
Development of NQ-A, Nutrition Quotient for Korean Adolescents, to assess dietary quality and food behavior
Hye-Young Kim, Jung-Sug Lee, Ji-Yun Hwang, Sehyug Kwon, Hae Rang Chung, Tong-Kyung Kwak, Myung-Hee Kang, Young-Sun Choi
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(2): 142. CrossRef
Gender Differences in Adolescents' Dietary Perceptions and Practices
Taejung Woo, Hye-Jin Lee, Kyoung Ae Lee, Seung Min Lee, Kyung-Hea Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2016; 21(2): 165. CrossRef
Study on Nutritional Knowledge and Food Consumption Differences of Middle School Students living in Rural and Urban Areas of Inner Mongolia
Ying Li, Youngmi Lee, Nari Park, Haeryun Park
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2015; 25(6): 933. CrossRef
Analysis of consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits in Korean adolescents based on Korea youth risk behavior web-based survey (2006, 2011)
Yangsuk Kim, Yong-Suk Kwon, Young-Hee Park, Jeong-Sook Choe, Jin-Young Lee
Nutrition Research and Practice.2015; 9(4): 411. CrossRef

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[English]
Effect of Nutrition Education on Improving Dietary Attitudes, Food Habits and Food Frequency - Female in Twenties Shift Work in Gyeonggi Area: Seung Lim Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(1):55-64. Published online February 28, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.1.55

Abstract PDF

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of nutrition education on improving dietary attitudes, food habits and Food Frequency of 32 female shift workers by administering questionnaires. Dietary nutrient consumption data were obtained from the female shift workers by using 1 day 24-hr recall. The results were as follows: Score on 'Concerns about health (p < 0.05)' was significantly higher after-training. Dietary attitude (32.3 vs. 34.9, p < 0.01) and food habits (60.2 vs. 67.1, p < 0.01) were significantly higher after thetraining. Scores on 'Eating a lot of food that I want to eat is more important than nutrition (p < 0.01)', 'I have a tendency to use instant foods when I am busy (p < 0.01)', 'I am interested in information on nutrition and health (p < 0.01)' were significantly higher after the training. Scores on 'I have three meals a day (p < 0.001)', 'I have breakfast regularly (p < 0.01)', 'I take vegetables other than kimchi at every meal (p < 0.01)', 'I drink milk every day (p < 0.001)', 'I eat fruits every day (p < 0.01)', and 'I apply nutrition knowledge to daily life (p < 0.001)' were significantly higher after the training. Protein (p < 0.05), fiber (p < 0.05), vitamin C (p < 0.01), and calcium (p < 0.001) intakes were significantly higher after the training. These results showed that nutrition education had improved the dietary attitudes, food habits, and nutrient intakes. Therefore, we conclude that providing more systematic and appropriate nutrition education to shift workers during their tenure of office period is likely to improve dietary attitudes, food habits, and nutrient intakes.

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The Effect of Frequent Use of Convenience Food from Convenience Stores on the Diet Quality of Women’s University Students: Using the Nutrition Quotient for Korean Adults
Sun Hee Lee, Seung-Lim Lee
The Korean Journal of Community Living Science.2021; 32(4): 581. CrossRef
Study of the characteristics of dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education for sodium reduction according to the stages of behavioral change in sodium reduction of male adult subjects in Gwangju·Jeonnam regions
Young Ran Heo, Hyun Young Oh, Hee Kyong Ro
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(5): 472. CrossRef
Survey on Health-related Factors, Nutrition Knowledge and Food Habits of College Students in Wonju Area
Seung Lim Lee, Sun Hee Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2015; 20(2): 96. CrossRef
Effects of nutrition education on nutrition-related knowledge, dietary habits, and nutrient intakes of alcoholic patients
An Na Kim, Hyeon-Sook Lim
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2014; 47(4): 277. CrossRef
Health-related Factors and Nutritional Status in Shift-workers at Coffee Shops - Focused on Single Women in Twenties in Seoul -
Seung-Lim Lee, Soo-Jin Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2013; 18(5): 467. CrossRef

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[English]
Evaluation of Food and Nutrient Intake by Food Frequency Questionnaire between Normal and Risk Groups according to the Bone Mineral Density of Female College Students Residing in Gangwon Area: Hye Ryeon Jeong, Sunju Yun, Mi Hyun Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2010;15(4):429-444. Published online August 31, 2010

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between bone density and dietary intake for college women in their twenties. This study was performed on 160 female college students residing in Gangwon-do. It was conducted using ultrasound measurement of calcaneus bone density, anthropometric checkup and food-frequency questionnaires (FFQ) comprising 94 kinds of commonly consumed foods. Subjects were divided into two groups according to the T-score of bone density: a normal group (n = 113 persons, T-score > or = 1) and a risk group (n = 47, T-score < 1.0). The average age of the subjects was 20.17 years and there was no significant difference between the two groups. Body weight and body fat percentage of the normal group were significantly higher than those of the risk group. The mean daily energy intake of the normal group was significantly higher than that of the risk group. Also, protein, fat, vitamin A, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron and zinc intake for the normal group were significantly higher than for the risk group. For the intake of the commonly consumed foods (or dishes) listed in FFQ, the mean daily intake amount of loaf bread, rice cake, potatoes, spicy beef soup, cucumber, seasoned spinach perilla leaves, crown daisy, stir-fried mushroom, sea mustard, beef rib, ham, chicken, mackerel, common squid, drink type curd yogurt, oriental melon and chocolate in the normal group was significantly higher than in the risk group. While, the mean daily intake of ramyun (instant noodle) and carbonated beverage by the normal group was significantly lower than that of the risk group. In conclusion, 20 something female college students showed a higher rate (26.9%) of the bone mineral density risk group (osteopenia or osteoporosis). For the risk group, the levels of nutrient and food intake were lower than in the normal group. Therefore, the bone density risk group needs to increase their nutrient intake and diet quality by increasing the intake of various foods. In addition, they should decrease the intake of foods, which are negative for skeletal health such as instant noodles and carbonated beverages.

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[English]
Food Habits, Eating Behaviors and Food Frequency by Gender and among Seoul and Other Regions in Upper-Grade Elementary School Children: Kyung Hee Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2010;15(2):180-190. Published online April 30, 2010

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to investigate the differences in food habits, eating behaviors and food frequency by gender and regions in upper grade elementary school children in Korea. Subjects of this study were 1,211 children, 645 boys and 566 girls, attending 6 elementary schools (4th, 5th and 6th graders). 389 children lived in Seoul and 822 children lived in other regions. Mean height, weight and BMI of subjects were 142.4 cm, 38.7 kg and 18.8 kg/m2 respectively. 70.5% of the subjects had breakfast every day and 12.4% of the subjects skipped breakfast. There were significant differences between boys and girls in causes of skipping breakfast, overeating, meal volume, and duration of meals. Girls showed more desirable eating behavior than boys (p < 0.001). Scores for specific eating behaviors such as unbalanced diet and intake of meats and vegetables were better in girls (p < 0.001), and boys ate meals faster than girls (p > 0.001). There were significant differences between Seoul and other regions in eating behavior. Eating behavior scores of children in other regions were higher than in Seoul (p < 0.01). Children in Seoul had a higher frequency of watching television with meals. Frequency of fruits (p < 0.001), milk products (p < 0.01), and meats (p < 0.05) of children in Seoul were higher than other regions. Otherwise the frequency of simple sugar products of children in other regions was higher than Seoul (p < 0.001). Frequency of green vegetables was higher for girls than boys, and frequency of fast foods was higher for boys than girls. These results showed that in nutrition education programs designed to improve the nutritional health of elementary school children, we need to focus more on differences in the children's food habits and eating behaviors by gender and regions. In consideration of these differences, such educational programs need to have a different emphasis for each gender and regions to serve its specific needs.

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[English]
Effects of Frequent Eating-out and Breakfast Skipping on Body Mass Index and Nutrients Intake of Working Male Adults: Analysis of 2001 Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey Data: Joung Won Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2009;14(6):789-797. Published online December 31, 2009

Abstract PDF: In order to investigate the effects of frequent eating-out and breakfast skipping of working men on body mass index and nutrients intake status, working male adults aged 20 or over were selected (n = 1883) from the data of 2001 Korea national health and nutrition survey. The subjects were divided into 4 groups according to the eating-out frequency(high: once or more daily, low: less than once daily) and breakfast eating or not. Four groups were high eating-out with breakfast eating (n = 609), high eating-out with breakfast skipping (n = 192), low eating-out with breakfast eating (n = 877), and low eatingout with breakfast skipping (n = 205). High eating-out group showed higher body mass index (BMI) than low eating-out group, but the difference of BMI was disappeared when adjusted with age, residence region and family income. However high eating-out group in case of breakfast eating, compared with the low eating-out, showed higher intakes or densities of energy, fat, fat-energy% and higher ratio of energy-fat overintake, and also showed higher mean nutritional adequacy ratio and lower ratio of nutrients intake deficiency. Calcium, iron, vitamin A and C intakes were not affected by eating-out frequency, but were lowered by breakfast skipping. Breakfast skipping also decreased intake frequency of unprocessed cereals and increased those of ramyon and carbonated and alcoholic beverages. From the results frequent eating-out with breakfast eating caused increased intakes of energy and fat, but did not cause BMI increase. Breakfast skipping, but not eating-out, had negative influences on mineral and vitamin intakes. Accordingly good eating-out as well as breakfast eating should be exceedingly emphasized at nutrition education for the working males.

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[English]
Dietary Behavior Factors for Desirable Nutrient Intakes of the Oldest-old Population in Sunchang County: Mee Sook Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2009;14(6):699-709. Published online December 31, 2009

Abstract PDF: In order to identify valuable factors for improving dietary quality of Korean rural elderly, the consumption frequency of food groups, dietary habits and health behaviors related to nutrient intakes of the elderly over 85 of Sunchang County were studied. The 171 subjects (61 males and 110 females) were chosen from Sunchang Province by stratified sampling. Among food groups, the consumption frequency of meat and fish groups influenced significantly on their nutrient intakes than the other groups. The subjects consuming more than 4 times per week of meat or fish had significantly higher nutrient intakes level than the other groups. The group consuming milk and milk products everday was higher in vitamin B2 intake level than the other groups. Among dietary habits, the groups with good appetite and regular mealtime compared with the groups with low appetite and irregular mealtime had significantly higher nutrient intake levels. The family type was the determining factor of nutrient intakes. The subjects living with family members consumed higher nutrient intakes than the subjects living alone. The smoking and the alcohol consumption themselves did not affect nutrient intakes, but the subjects having alcohol consumption frequently more than once a day had lower nutrient intakes than the others. The group with dentures did not differ significantly from the without denture group in nutrient intakes; however, those who had chewing problems showed the lower nutrient intakes compared to those who did not have chewing problems. The subjects with more than two kinds of clinical symptoms had lower nutrient intakes than the subjects with less than two kinds of clinical symptoms. These results indicate that the identifying factors for desirable nutrient intakes of rural elderly were characterized as appropriate consumption frequencies of meat and fish, good appetite, living with family, regular mealtime, chewing without difficulty, and low incidence of chronic disease.

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Interrelations Among Fast Food, Beverage Intake and Sociality, Anger Expression of Adolescents in the Busan Area: Eun Soon Lyu, In Sook Chae, Kyung Hae Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(6):829-839. Published online December 31, 2008

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation of the fast food and beverage intake on sociality and anger expression of adolescents. Questionnaires were distributed to the adolescents of 599 middle and high school students in Busan. According to the results, the preference-intake frequency analysis (PEA) on fast food grid, high preference and high intake frequency were 'dukbokki', 'chicken' and 'mandu' and low preference and high intake frequency were 'ramyon', 'gimbab. PEA on beverage grid, high preference and high intake frequency were 'milk dairy product', 'fruit juice', 'isotonic beverage' and low preference and high intake frequency were 'carbonate drink'. The intake frequency of 'pizza', 'sandwich', 'udong', and 'dukbokki' had a positive relationship with sociality. 'Hamburger', 'chicken', 'french fry', 'gimbab', 'mandu', and 'ramyon' showed a positive relationship with anger-out. The intake frequency of 'carbonated drink' had a negative relationship with anger-control, but 'green tea' showed a positive relation with it. 'Carbonate drink', 'isotonic beverage', 'coffee', and 'milkshake' had a negative relationship with anger-out. The explanation power (R2) of intake of fast food and beverage on sociality was 0.019~0.038, and 'carbonated drink' and 'coffee' had a negative influence on sociality. The explanation power (R2) of intake of fast food and beverage on anger expression was 0.011~0.041, and 'carbonated drink' had a negative influence on angercontrol. 'Hamburger', 'carbonated drink', and 'coffee' showed a positive influence on anger-out. From these results, it was necessary to develop the practical eating-out habits program on proper fast food and beverage choice for adolescents.

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[English]
Developing Dish-based Food Frequency Questionnaire for the Epidemiology Study of Hypertension Among Korean: Mi Kyung Kim, Young Mi Yun, Youngok Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(5):701-712. Published online October 31, 2008

Abstract PDF: The purpose of the present study was aimed to identify dish items applicable in developing dish?based food frequency questionnaire (DFFQ) for a hypertension study of Koreans. The 24-hour recall data of 4,401 subjects aged 20~65 years from the 2001 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used for the analysis. Logistic regression model was used to identify the nutrient related with hypertension. Energy, fiber, sodium, calcium, carotene, vitamin B1 and vitamin C were associated with hypertension. Selection the top 30 dish items for these seven nutrients was performed based on their degree of contribution in supplying nutrients in terms of the cumulative percent contribution (cPC), as well as on their degree of explanation for between?person variation, in terms of the cumulative regression coefficient (cMRC). Rice supplied 43% of total energy consumption. Korean cabbage and radish kimchi were two major sources of sodium and it also covered the 27% of between person variation of sodium intake. Soybean paste soup and single item of orange?colored fruits supplied 43% of total vitamin C intake for Koreans and it covered the almost 79% of between person variation among the Korean population. Korean cabbage kimchi was the major source of fiber, calcium, sodium, carotene, and vitamin C for Koreans. In summary, the top 30 selected dish items supplying the 78% to 89% of the 7 nutrients. Those items also covered the 79% to 94% of between person variation of the 7 nutrients consumption. Therefore, the selected 30 dish items in each categories of nutrient could be applicable in developing dish based food frequency questionnaire for hypertension study.

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[English]
Dietary Habits, Food Frequency and Dietary Attitudes by Gender and Nutrition Knowledge Level in Upper-grade School Children: Mi Yong Yon, Young Hee Han, Tai Sun Hyun; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(3):307-322. Published online June 30, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was carried out to examine dietary habits, food frequency and dietary attitudes by gender and nutrition knowledge level in upper-grade school children. Subjects were 223 boys and 208 girls attending 13 elementary schools (5 th and 6 th graders). A self-administered questionnaire was developed to assess nutrition knowledge, dietary habits, food frequency, and dietary attitudes. Nutrition knowledge score assessed by 19 questions was significantly higher in girls than in boys. There were significant differences between boys and girls in several items in dietary habits such as enough breakfast time, dinner regularity, number of side dishes, eating speed, type of snack after dinner, and degree of saltiness of dishes. Girls consumed staple foods such as rice, noodles or bread more frequently, and consumed less frequently ramyun, fried foods, fast foods, and Chinese foods than boys. In addition, girls had more positive dietary attitudes in trying to reduce fast foods, Chinese foods, ramyun and fried foods. Also children in the high or moderate nutrition knowledge level groups had better dietary habits in frequency of meals, frequency of breakfast, enough breakfast time, dinner regularity, activity during the meal, number of side dishes, eating speed, type of snack after dinner, and better food choices by eating staple foods and vegetable side dishes, meats and beans more frequently, and fried foods, doughnuts/ cakes, Chinese foods less frequently, and had better dietary attitudes in breakfast, vegetables and fruit intake than children in the low nutrition knowledge level group. Our results showed that dietary habits, food frequency and dietary attitudes were different by gender and nutrition knowledge level. These results suggest that in developing nutrition education program for elementary school children, the differences between gender and nutrition knowledge level should be considered. Nutrition education in elementary schools may change dietary habits and dietary attitudes through increasing nutrition knowledge.

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[English]
The Comparative Study on Food Consumption Patterns, Dietary Behavior, and Nutrition Knowledge of Korean Professional Soccer Players and Non-athletic Males: Hye Kyeong Kim, Jong Sook Kwon, Chan Kim, Jun Ho Kim, Chul Hyun Kim, Kyung Min Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(2):164-175. Published online April 30, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was performed to compare food consumption patterns, dietary behavior, and nutrition knowledge between Korean professional soccer players and the non-athletic males. Data were collected from 53 soccer players working for Korean professional soccer clubs and 44 non-athletic males, using self-administered questionnaires. There were significant differences in food consumption frequency between two groups. Meats and eggs, fishes and shellfishes, sea weeds were consumed more frequently by the soccer players. The frequency scores of foods rich in iron, calcium, and protein were also higher in the soccer players compared with the non-athletes. Meanwhile, the consumption of alcohol was more frequent in the non-athletes. As for the cooking method, the soccer players showed higher preference for steaming/parboiling and consumed raw vegetables and fruits more frequently than the non-athletic males (p < 0.05). The average scores of soccer players on nutrition knowledge for basic nutrition and athletic nutrition were lower than the respective values of the non-athletic males. However, the soccer players showed better eating behaviors and dietary habits compared with non-athletic males (p < 0.001). They had well-balanced, regular diet and good habits for chronic disease prevention. No significant relationship could be observed with respect to nutrition knowledge and nutritional behavior. Moreover, the experience of getting nutrition information did not affect either nutrition knowledge score or nutritional habits score, except that for habits of chronic disease prevention in non-athletes. Therefore, it is suggested that more effective and practical nutrition education program be needed for promoting healthy eating habits and improving nutritional status in young males.

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[English]
A Study on Development and Validation of Food Frequency Questionnaire for Estimating Energy Intake of Women in Child-Bearing Age: Sun Kyung Ji, Hyung Sook Kim, Hay Mie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(1):111-124. Published online February 29, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to develop a computerized food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for assessing nutritional status of women of child-bearing age. Computerized food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that reflect intakes of energy, carbohydrate, fat and protein was developed for women of child-bearing age. This FFQ is composed of 61 foods or food groups containing 192 dish items. To estimate of energy intake easily, we have developed a computer program that can be viewed on a computer screen in an actual size of dish items. Nutrient intakes of the last three months by the FFQ was validated with comparing the result of a 3-day diet record through 92 college students aged from 20 to 30. The level of energy, carbohydrate and sodium of estimating by the FFQ method was significantly higher than the level of a 3-day diet records method (p < 0.01). Pearson's correlation coefficients between the two methods were 0.50 for carbohydrate (p < 0.01), 0.55 for energy (p < 0.01) and 0.56 for protein (p < 0.01). Spearman's correlation coefficients were 0.53 for carbohydrate (p < 0.01), 0.55 for energy (p < 0.01) and 0.52 for protein (p < 0.01). The percent of subject in the lowest quartile in a 3-day diet record belonged to the first and second lowest quartile in food frequency questionnaire is 78.2% in energy, 91.3% in carbohydrate, 78.2% in protein, 69.5% in fat. Also, the percent of subject in the highest quartile in a 3-day diet record belong to the first and second highest quartile in food frequency questionnaire is 78.3% in energy, 73.9% in carbohydrate, 82.6% in protein, and 73.9% in fat. On the whole, the result of this study seemed to be in good agreement with other studies. Therefore, the FFQ developed by this study is considered to be a reliable tool to assess nutrients and food intakes for women of child-bearing age.

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[English]
Development and Evaluation of Validity of Short Dish Frequency Questionnaire (DFQ) for Estimation of Habitual Sodium Intake for Korean Adults: Sook Mee Son, Young Sook Park, Wha Je Lim, Sook Bae Kim, Yeon seon Jeong; Korean J Community Nutr 2007;12(6):838-853. Published online December 31, 2007

Abstract PDF: The aim of this study was to develop various types of a dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) for estimating the habitual sodium intake and to evaluate the validity of a 125 item dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ 125) with the DFQ 70, DFQ 36 and DFQ 15. For the DFQ 125, one hundred and twenty five dish items were selected based on the information of sodium content of a one serving size, consumption frequency and dish items that contributed most to the variation of sodium intake. Frequency of consumption was determined through nine categories ranging from more than 3 times a day to almost never to indicate how often the specified amount of each food item was consumed during the past 6 months. The sodium intake estimated with DFQ 125 was 5775.0 +/- 3636.3mg, 12.6% higher than that estimated with a 24 hr urine analysis (5009.7 +/- 1541.9mg) and significant correlation was observed between them (r = 0.3315, p < 0.001). When sodium content in broth leftover was subtracted from the total intake, the actual sodium intakes was decreased to 5309.6 +/- 3076.6mg, which was 3.2% higher than that with a 24-hr urine analysis. Overall, 56% of subjects in the lowest quintile of sodium intake computed with DFQ 125 were also in the lowest of adjacent quintile while categorization into the opposite quintile were 4.9%. DFQ 70 was developed from DFQ 125 by omitting the food items not frequently consumed, selecting the dish items that showed higher sodium content per one portion size and higher consumption frequency. The sodium intake estimated with DFQ 70 (5026.6 +/- 3107.1mg) showed only 0.2% difference from that estimated with a 24-hr urine analysis, significant correlation with it (r = 0.3199, p < 0.001) and higher proportion of subjects to be classified into the same or adjacent quintile. The sodium intake estimated with DFQ 36 or DFQ 15 was also significancy correlated with that estimated with a 24-hr urine analysis (r = 0.3441, p < 0.001; r = 0.321, p < 0.001 respectively) and more. The proportion of subjects was classified into the same or adjacent quintile. However, the actual sodium intake estimated with DFQ 36 or DFQ 15 were 3534.0 +/- 1804.6mg and 2508.0 +/- 1261.5mg, respectively, 31.3% or 51.3% less than that estimated with a 24-hr urine analysis. It seems the DFQ 125 with subtraction of sodium content in broth leftover or DFQ 70 can be used quantitatively to estimate sodium intake of adults. DFQ 36 or DFQ 15 can be used as a screening tool or to assess the changes of sodium intake after nutrition education.

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[English]
Sodium Intakes of Korean Adults with 24-hour Urine Analysis and Dish Frequency Questionnaire and Comparison of Sodium Intakes According to the Regional Area and Dish Group: Sook Mee Son, Young Sook Park, Hwa Jae Lim, Sook Bae Kim, Yeon Seon Jeong; Korean J Community Nutr 2007;12(5):545-558. Published online October 31, 2007

Abstract PDF: This study was performed to assess the sodium intakes of Korean adults using a 24-hr urine analysis and dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) according to each dish group and the regional area. The subjects of this study were comprised of 552 adults (male: 267, female: 285), aged 20-59yr residing in the metropolitan area (N = 200), Chungcheng-Do (N = 117), Jeolla-Do (N = 117), and Gueongsang-Do provinces (N = 118). The subjects were recruited from the residents who once participated or are participating in the various health programs offered by the public health center. The number of subjects who completed the 24-hr urine collection was 205 (male : 110, female : 95).The mean age and BMI of the subjects were 39.0+/-11.7 y and 23.1+/-2.9 kg/m2, respectively. The mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure was 119.5+/-15.4 mmHg, and 77.1+/-11.1 mmHg, respectively. Eighteen percent of the subjects responded that they are currently smoking, 36% drinking and 50.4% exercising. Twenty point six percent of the subjects were assessed as having hypertension according to their systolic or diastolic blood pressure(SBP > or = 140 mmHg or DBP > or = 90 mmHg) measurements in the present study. Salt intake of the subject estimated with 24-hr sodium excretion was 12.7 g/d (male : 13.4 g/d, female : 12.1 g/d) based on the sodium excretion rate as 82%. Salt intake estimated with DFQ was 14.7 g/d (male : 16.2 g/d, female : 13.4 g/d), 2 g more than the salt intake estimated with 24-hr urine analysis. The four dish groups that contributed most to the sodium intake in order were kimchi (I1571.4mg), soup and stew (1260.5 mg), fish and shellfish (706.3 mg) and noodle and ramyeon (644.3mg). Salt intake estimated with DFQ was the highest in the subjects of Gueongsang-Do (17.0 g/d), second highest Chungcheong-Do (16.4 g/d) and the lowest in the metropolitan area (13.0 g/d). Subjects of Gueongsang-Do showed the highest sodium intakes in most of the dish group, whereas subjects of the metropolitan area showed the lowest. Residents of Chuncheong-Do revealed the highest sodium intake with kimchi and ofJeolla-Do the higher sodium intake with the main dish (meat, fish and beans). The highest salt percentage of kimchi (3.0+/-0.8%) and soybean paste (14.5 +/-5.1%) were observed in Gueongsang-Do, whereas individuals of the metropolitan area were observed as having kimchi (1.6 +/-0.5%) and soybean paste (7.4 +/-1.6%) with the lowest salt percentage. Men were observed as having more salty kimchi (2.4 +/-0.1%) than women (2.1 +/-0.1%).

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[English]
Dietary Life and Eating-Out Style Related to Breakfast Frequency of Male Students in Culinary College: Sookhee Kim, Kyunghee Joung, Byoungsook Chae; Korean J Community Nutr 2007;12(1):13-24. Published online February 28, 2007

Abstract PDF: This study was to investigate dietary life and eating-out style related to breakfast frequency of male students in culinary college. This survey was conducted using questionnaires for 110 male students at college in Hongseung. Mean height and body weight of those we investigated was 174 cm and 70.5 kg. The one to two times per week breakfast eating group was 34.55%, which is exceedingly numerous; none per week breakfast eating group was 30%; three to four times per week breakfast eating group was 15.45%; everyday breakfast eating group was only 9.09%. The breakfast frequency was very low, and the not-eating breakfast problem is serious to think of in male college students. Mean weight, body fat and body mass index (BMI) of the everyday breakfast eating group was lower than the other group even it was not significant. The self-boarding house or dormitory living condition group was not eating breakfast was significant. So a correct dietary life and eating habit should be taught further for male college students. The smoking group was a significant low frequency of breakfast eating, as well as the lower frequency of breakfast, or worse recognition of self health condition. Higher frequency of breakfast showed more contentment of self body weight. Cooked rice was significantly the most preferable for breakfast. The lower breakfast frequency tended to eat breads or cereals. The lower frequency of breakfast, self recognition of eating rate as speedier was significant, and tended to have a higher frequency of eating-out because of being annoyed by cooking. The lower breakfast frequency ate out more. Twenty five percent of the everyday breakfast eating group ate out because of a special day, and thirty five percent of the not eating breakfast group did so because of being annoyed by cooking. Their mean dietary evaluation grade was under the normal grade, which means that culinary college male students?dietary lives were poor. The lower frequency of breakfast and lower grade of food life evaluation, indicates the importance of nutritional breakfasts education should be improved for male culinary college students also.

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[English]
Perception of Foodservice Quality Attributes of Older Adults: Compared by Lifestyle and Dining Frequency in Continuing Care Retirement Communities: Sunhee Seo; Korean J Community Nutr 2006;11(2):261-270. Published online April 30, 2006

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to identify the differences of older adults' perceptions of foodservice quality attributes of current offerings in Continuing Care Retirement Communities (CCRCs) in terms of their lifestyles (length of residency, special diet, housing option, travel frequency, dine out frequency), dining frequency, and demographics in the dining room of CCRCs. The survey was administered to residents in three CCRCs. Data was analyzed for 140 surveys using t-test, ANOVA, and factor analysis. This study found female older adults perceived the following attributes were more important than male ones: presentation of food, color and garnish, texture of vegetables, taste and flavor of food, and respectful attitude of serving staff. Older adults who have a special diet perceived the seasoning and bite sized pieces were more important than those who have a general diet. Also, there were significant differences between frequent visitors and occasional visitors in the dining room of CCRCs. By knowing the differences by residents' demographics and residential characteristics, the foodservice manager can establish strategies to increase the dining frequency of residents in the dining rooms of CCRCs.

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[English]
Effects of School-based Nutrition Education for Korean Food Guide on Food Intake Frequency of Adolescents: Joung Sook Kim, Myoung Soon Park, Young Sun Cho, Joung Won Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2005;10(5):582-591. Published online October 31, 2005

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of nutrition education about the Korean food guide to middle school students on food intake measured by food frequency. Three hundred first graders were sampled from two coeducational middle schools located in the small city of Chungnam area, and divided into 167 (74 boys, 93 girls) education groups of one school and 133 (70 boys, 63 girls) non education groups of the other school. Nutrition education was given to the education group for a total of 16 hours and no education to the non education group during the same period. After education, average nutrition knowledge scores of education group increased from 6.40 +/- 2.17 to 6.81 +/- 1.56 significantly, especially boys with a high range of increase and girls no increase. Dietary habit scores improved significantly from 46.2 +/- 6.5 to 49.1 +/- 6.2 in both boys and girls of education group. Of the knowledge and dietary habits, ability of choosing a balanced meal, biased eating to some food, and taking diverse foods at every meal improved significantly in education group. In non education group no significant increases of either nutrition knowledge scores and dietary habit scores were shown. In addition education group showed significant increases after education, in the intake frequencies of rice noodle loaf bread, kimchi, green and yellow vegetables, and soybean soybean curds by 0.27, 0.23, 0.40 and 0.32 servings per day, compared with non education group. These changes were greater in girls than in boys. According to these results, it can be concluded that nutrition education about the Korean food guide improved effectively not only student's nutrition knowledge and dietary habits, but also healthy food intake ability. It is necessary to prepare long-term and continuous school-based nutrition education programs for the students to get into a habit of healthy food intake.

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Validation Studies

[English]
Development and Evaluation of Validity of Dish Frequency Questionnaire (DFQ) and Short DFQ Using Na Index for Estimation of Habitual Sodium Intake: Sook Mee Son, Gwui Yeop Huh, Hong Sup Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2005;10(5):677-692. Published online October 31, 2005

Abstract PDF: The assessment of sodium intake is complex because of the variety and nature of dietary sodium. This study intended to develop a dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) for estimating the habitual sodium intake and a short DFQ for screening subjects with high or low sodium intake. For DFQ112, one hundred and twelve dish items were selected based on the information of sodium content of the one serving size and consumption frequency. Frequency of consumption was determined through nine categories ranging from more than 3 times a day to almost never to indicate how often the specified amount of each food item was consumed during the past 6 months. One hundred seventy one adults (male: 78, female: 93) who visited hypertension or health examination clinic participated in the validation study. DFQ55 was developed from DFQ112 by omitting the food items not frequently consumed, selecting the dish items that showed higher sodium content per one portion size and higher consumption frequency. To develop a short DFQs for classifying subjects with low or high sodium intakes, the weighed score according to the sodium content of one protion size was given to each dish item of DFQ25 or DFQ14 and multiplied with the consumption frequency score. A sum index of all the dish items was formed and called sodium index (Na index). For validation study the DFQ112, 2-day diet record and one 24-hour urine collection were analyzed to estimate sodium intakes. The sodium intakes estimated with DFQ112 and 24-h urine analysis showed 65% agreement to be classified into the same quartile and showed significant correlation (r = 0.563 p < 0.05). However, the actual amount of sodium intake estimated with DFQ112 (male: 6221.9 mg, female: 6127.6 mg) showed substantial difference with that of 24-h urine analysis (male: 4556.9 mg, female: 5107.4 mg). The sodium intake estimated with DFQ55 (male: 4848.5 mg, female: 4884.3 mg) showed small difference from that estimated with 24-h urine analysis, higher proportion to be classfied into the same quartile and higher correlation with the sodium intakes estimated with 24-h urine analysis and systolic blood pressure. It seems DFQ55 can be used as a tool for quantitative estimation of sodium intake. Na index25 or Na index14 showed 39~50% agreement to be classified into the same quartile, substantial correlations with the sodium intake estimated with DFQ55 and significant correlations with the sodium intake estimated with 24-h urine analysis. When point 119 for Na index25 was used as a criterion of low sodium intake, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value was 62.5%, 81.8% and 53.2%, respectively. When point 102 for Na index14 was used as a criterion of high sodium intake, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value were 73.8%, 84.0%, 62.0%, respectively. It seems the short DFQs using Na index14 or Na index25 are simple, easy and proper instruments to classify the low or high sodium intake group.

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Original Articles

[English]
A Study on the Attitude of Soy Food and Estimated Dietary Isoflavone Intake among Korean Adolescents: Min June Lee, Min Jung Kim, Sung Hee Min, Sun Yoon; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(5):606-614. Published online October 31, 2004

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to investigate the attitude to various soy foods and to estimate dietary isoflavone intake among Korean adolescents. The survey was carried out by self-administered questionnaire with 800 middle and high school students residing in urban and rural areas and 714 questionnaires were collected: resulting in 89% response rate. The dietary isoflavone intake was estimated by food frequency questionnaire developed for rapid assessment of isoflavone intake. Soybean paste, soybean curd, soy milk, bean sprouts and dambuk were recognized as nutritious and healthy food in order. Dambuk got the lowest score in taste and flavor. Bean sprouts, soybean curd and soybean paste were recognized as familiar food in order. Stuffed rice in fried soybean curd got the highest score and Miso soup got the lowest in preference. More than 50% of the subjects consumed soybean paste stew/soup and soybean curd over twice per week and 12.3% of the subjects consumed soybean over once a day. The estimated daily intake of isoflavones ranged from 0 to 227 mg, and the mean daily isoflavone intake of the subjects was 28.1 mg (16.3 mg genistein and 12.0 mg daidzein) whereas the median value of isoflavone intake was 19.7 mg. There was statistically significant relationship among Kyung Gi Do, Chung cheung Do and Seoul residents in their intake of isoflavone. The highest monthly income group consumed isoflavone more than the other groups. These results suggest that Korean adolescent perceived the soybean dishes as high quality foods but they didn't take much because of difficulty to cook or less chance to eat. Nutrition education program is needed to enhance consuming soy foods for prevention of chronic diseases related to dietary isoflavone intake. More detailed information on easy cook method of soy food is also needed.

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[English]
Dietary Risk Factors Related to Bone Mineral Density in the Postmenopausal Women with Low Bone Mineral Density: Eun Joo Lee, Sook Mee Son; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(5):644-653. Published online October 31, 2004

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to determine the dietary and lifestyle factors related to bone the mineral density (BMD) of postmenopausal women with decreased BMD. The subjects (N = 163) were recruited from women who visited a orthopedic clinic for BMD check up. A trained dietition interviewed subjects individually to obtain data about dietary behavior, consumption frequency of foods known as main dietary source of calcium and potassium, and clinical symptoms. The risk factors were identified by correlation and multiple regression analysis of variables. The mean age of the subjects was 66.8 years. Most of them showed low levels of education and monthly income. The mean age of menarche and menopause were 17.2 and 48 year, respectively. The mean menopause duration was 18.7 year. Most of the consumption of calcium was centered to vegetable foods. Education level were positively correlated (r = 0.272, p < 0.05) with BMD whereas age, menarch age, menopause duration, number of children were negatively correlated (r = -0.355, r = -0.240, r = -0.283, r = -0.193, respectively, p < 0.05) with BMD. The consumption of soybean, radish were positively correlated (r = 0.187, r = 0.158, respectively, p < 0.05) with BMD. Potassium intake with rice showed significantly negative correlation with BMD (r = -0.189, p < 0.05), but calcium intake with brown seaweeds, bean sprouts were positively correlated (r = 0.247, r = 0.254 respectively, p < 0.05) with BMD. Protein intake with roasted pork was also positively correlated (r = 0.216, p < 0.05) with BMD. Multiple regression analysis showed that the most prominent negative predictor influencing the BMD was age. Minor negative factors influencing the BMI were age of menarche, potassium intake from rice. But the significantly positively factors influencing the BMD were consumption of radish and soybean intake, education, and protein intake with roasted pork. In conclusion brown seaweeds, radish or soybeans can be promoted as cheap foods replacing milk and milk products for menopausal women with low income.

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[English]
A Study of the Frequency of Food Purchase for Snacking and Its Related Ecological Factors on Elementary School Children: Seock Ah Kang, Joung Won Lee, Kyeung Eun Kim, Jae Ok Koo, Dong Yean Park; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(4):453-463. Published online August 31, 2004

Abstract PDF: In order to investigate food purchase frequency of elementary school children and its related ecological factors, 4314th, 5th and 6th grade elementary school children and their mothers, living in Seoul and Daejon, small city and rural area of Chungnam Province, were participated in this study. The subjects and their parents were surveyed by a selfrecording questionnaire about food purchase frequency and some ecological factors. Average height and weight of the subjects by gender and grade were similar to or a little bit more than the 1998 Korean Growth Standard. According to relative body weight, 30.6% and 10.8% of the subjects belonged to under-weight and obesity categories, respectively. Of the subjects, 46.9% used PC telecommunication or internet, 53.8% of them used it for less than an hour per day, and 46.4% watched TV for 2 to 4 hours a day. About 42% of the subjects spent 500 Won or less daily to buy snacks. A half of the subjects took snacks once a day because of hunger. Mothers' nutrition knowledge score was averagely 8.16 out of 13 full score and the average attitude score was 43.22 out of 50 full score. Foods purchased more than once a week were milk and yoghurt, cookies, ice-cream, ramyun, and gum in order. Family income, parents' education level, mothers' nutrition knowledge and food attitude score, students' snacking frequency and TV watching time showed significant correlations with purchase frequencies of some individual food items. In conclusion, the elementary school children considered taste most important rather than nutrition in buying snacks and most frequently bought carbohydrate foods and concentrated sugars except milk. Ecological factors such as mothers' nutritional knowledge and food attitude, TV watching time and snacking frequency had influenced the children's food purchase frequency. Accordingly, it is necessary to educate both children and their mothers about good food purchase and the importance of snacking.

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[English]
Supplement Dose and Health-Related Life Style of Vitamin-Mineral Supplement User among Korean Middle-Aged: Yoon Jung Kim, Ju Ae Mun, Hyesun Min; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(3):303-314. Published online June 30, 2004

Abstract PDF: We studied daily micronutrient intake from vitamin-mineral supplements, health-related life style, clinical case of diseases and food frequency of the Korean middle-aged (40 - 59 yr, n = 404) to compare the characteristics of non-user (n = 270) and user (n = 134) of vitamin-mineral supplements. Rate of supplement use of the middle-aged was 33.2% and there was significant difference in education level (p = 0.0084) and family income (p = 0.0476) of user and nonuser. Smoking habit (p = 0.0844) and drinking frequency (p = 0.0606) tended to be lower in a supplement user than a non-user. The medical history of a case was significantly higher in users (67.9%) than in non-users (44.4%) (p = 0.001), which suggests that medical history is one of the important motivations of supplement use. Supplement users had the medical history of digestive disease (34.1%), anemia (11.0%) and hypertension (9.9%) in order. Vitamin C was the most frequently supplemented nutrient (81.3%) among vitamin-mineral supplement, and the next orders were vitamins E (73.1%), B2 (68.7%) and B6 (60.4%). Mean intakes of vitamin B1, iron, selenium, vitamin E, and vitamin C from supplement was 4,260%, 4,030%, 1,660% and 1,330% of RDA, respectively. The supplement users tended to consume most food items including milk & milk products (p < 0.01), rice (p < 0.01), grains (p < 0.05) and cookies (p < 0.01) less frequently than non-users. Conclusively, nutrient intake of vitamin B1, iron, selenium, vitamin E, and vitamin C from supplement was excessively high compared to RDA. We suggest that the toxic effect of excessive supplementation should be informed to supplement user and nutritional education should be focused on the optimal supplement dose.

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[English]
Validation and Calibration of Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire: With Participants of the Korean Health and Genome Study: Younjhin Ahn, Ji Eun Lee, Nam Han Cho, Chol Shin, Chan Park, Berm Seok Oh, Kuchan Kimm; Korean J Community Nutr 2004;9(2):173-182. Published online April 30, 2004

Abstract PDF: We carried out a validation-calibration study of the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that we had previously developed for a community-based cohort of the Korean Genome and Health Study of the Korea National Genome Research Institute. We have collected a total of 254 3-day diet records (DRs) from 400 subjects, 200 each randomly selected from the two study cohorts of Ansung and Ansan. FFQ was administered at the time of cohort recruitment in 2001, and DRs were collected during a two month period from January through February of 2002. The mean age was 52.2 years. Farming for men and housewife for women were the most common occupations. The majority of the subjects had undergone 6~12 years of education. The general characteristics including demographic and other data were not different from the total cohort subjects. Absolute levels of consumed nutrients including total energy (energy), protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron, retinol, carotene, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C were compared. The average of energy intake was not significantly different between the data collected by the 2 methods. However, consumptions of protein and fat were higher in data of DRs, whereas that of carbohydrate was higher in FFQ data. Significant correlation of each nutrient consumption between the data sets was observed (p <0.05) except in the case of iron, while the average correlation coefficient between them was 0.22 ranging from 0.33 for energy to 0.11 for iron. The results of cross classification by quantile for exact classification ranged from 25.2% (carotene) to 35.0% (phosphorus), and from 64.6% (vitamin A) to 76.4% (retinol) for adjacent classification. The proportion of completely opposite classification was 8.1% in average. Calibration slope was estimated by regression and calibration parameters ranged from 0.025 for carotene to 0.423 for niacin. We conclude that the FFQ we have developed is an appropriate tool for assessing the nutrient intakes as ranking exposures in epidemiology studies in view that amounts of consumed nutrients obtained by FFQ were similar to those collected by DRs, that correlations between consumed nutrients collected by these methods were significant, and that classification results were relatively fair. The correlation coefficients, however, were lower than expected, which may be mainly due to the survey season. In fact, any short-term dietary survey cannot accurately reflect the overall dietary intakes that change heavily depending on seasons. Further studies including the analysis of chemical indices would be helpful for the studies of causal relationship between the diet and disease.

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[English]
The Relationship between the Prevalence of Constipation and Beverage Intake of Female High School Students in Seoul: Eunn Tae Lim, Youngnam Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(6):856-866. Published online December 31, 2003

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to study the relationship between the prevalence of constipation and beverage intake. Research data were collected from first and second grade female students at Hyehwa High School in Seoul by means of questionnaires. A total of 190 questionnaires were analyzed using the SPSS/WIN program. The results are summarized as follows: The average body mass index (BMI) was 20.7. Of the students, 38.4% had a BMI of less than 20 (underweight), and 15.8% had a BMI of over 23 (overweight). However, 84.7% of the students wanted to lose weight. To estimate the prevalence of constipation, five factors were used: frequency and regularity of defecation, time spent defecating, defecation difficulty, and feeling of residue after defecation. The percentage of the students who emptied their bowels every day was 22.1%. About 2/5 of the students (42.1%) had irregular defecation, and 15.2% spent more than 10 minutes in the rest room when defecating. The students who did not have difficulty defecating and those who did not have feelings of residue after defecating were only 24.7% and 28.9%, respectively. The amount of beverage intake per day was 1,062 ml: 674 ml of water, 128 ml of milk, 88 ml of soft drinks, and 53 ml of fruit juice. The amount of beverage intake before breakfast, during breakfast, before lunch and during lunch was about 100 ml, each; before dinner, during dinner, and after dinner it was about 200 ml, each. The amount of beverage intake during the weekend was 120 ml greater than on weekdays. Students who drank more beverages, especially water, before breakfast, showed a higher defecation frequency, more regular defecation, spent less time defecating, had less difficulty defecating, and had less feeling of residue after defecation, so that they have a better defecation pattern. Based on these results, increasing the amount of beverage consumption, especially of water, and drinking greater quantities of beverage before breakfast are ways to reduce constipation.

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[English]
The Influence of Health-Related Habits on Nutrient Intake and Food Frequency of Middle-Aged Subjects in Seoul: Mee Sook Lee, Sung Ae Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(5):699-707. Published online October 31, 2003

Abstract PDF: This study examined the effectiveness of two commonly used dietary assessment methods (the 24-hour recall and the food frequency questionnaire) in the epidemiological investigations of health-related habits and degenerative diseases. This cross sectional project in the Seoul area was conducted for the purpose of establishing cohort subjects and collecting reliable nutrient intake data for a further large-scale cross sectional study. The subjects were 91 volunteers from the Seoul area with a mean age of 53.5 +/- 9.6 for the males and 52.2 +/- 8.9 for the females. The subjects had a rela-tively high educational background, were from high socioeconomic levels, and were greatly concerned about healthrelated life styles. There was a significantly negative correlation between their smoking and their nutrient intake. Their drinking habits, their self-estimated health status and their concern or stress about being healthy did not have any influence on their nutrient intakes. Skipping meals was the most undesirable dietary habit influencing their nutrient intakes, and the next was their irregularity of eating meals. The subjects who liked legumes and fish had higher intakes of iron and niacin and those who liked milk and dairy products had higher intakes of calcium, vitamin B2 and fat. The subjects who considered themselves not to be healthy consumed higher amounts of fish and shell-fish, and those who considered themselves to be healthy consumed higher amounts of vegetables. The smokers consumed less fruits than non-smokers, but there was no correlation between their drinking and consumption of the food groups. There was no correlation between their food consumption frequency and their skipping meals or meal irregularity. There were positive correlations between their food likes and food consumption frequency for foods such as meat, milk and dairy products, seaweeds and fruits. Therefore, their smoking, skipping meals and meal irregularity appeared to greatly influence their nutrient intakes. Significant correlations were found between their health-related habits and their food group preferences and food frequencies. This implies that simple surveying methods using criteria such as smoking, skipping meals and meal irregularity, food group preferences and eating frequencies can be used as useful tools in the assessment of nutritional statuses.

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[English]
Evaluating Nutrient Intakes of Korean Elderly Using Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire: Hae Jeung Lee, Seon Joo Park, Jung Hee Kim, Cho Il Kim, Kyung Ja Chang, Kyeong Sook Yim, Kyungwon Kim, Haymie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(3):311-318. Published online June 30, 2003

Abstract PDF: The aim of this study was to assess the nutrient intakes of the elderly subjects in Korea. Dietary assessment was carried out using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SQFFQ) developed by our laboratory, which included 98 commonly consumed food items selected from 1998 National Health and Nutritional Survey for Korean population. Subjects (n = 2,660) aged 50yr and over were recruited in Seoul, 6 metropolitan cities, and 8 mid-size cities. Calcium and riboflavin intakes of the elderly subjects aged 65 yr and over (n = 1,974) were much lower compared with Korean RDA. Nutrient intakes of the three age group (50-64 yr, 65-74 yr, 75 yr and over) were decreased as age increased in male and female elderly. Nutrient intakes of male elderly, 75 yr and over, were significantly decreased while in female elderly nutrient intakes were gradually decreased as age increased. Over 30% of the elderly subjects did not meet 75% RDA for calcium, iron, vitamin A, and riboflavin. The proportion of the elderly subjects whose intakes were below 75% RDA was much higher than the elderly whose intakes were above 125% RDA, especially among the elderly aged 75 yr and over. This study revealed that the Korean elderly had inadequate intakes for many nutrients. This will cause a serious nutritional problem for the elderly.

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[English]
The Development and Validation of a Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess Diets of Korean Adolescents: Kyeong Sook Yim, Tae Young Lee, Hye Soon Park; Korean J Community Nutr 2003;8(2):149-159. Published online April 30, 2003

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the validity of a food frequency questionnaire for Korean adolescents (FFQ-A) which could be used in clinical and epidemiological studies of the lifestyle and health of young people. The FFQ-A was designed to reflect the eating pattern of Korean adolescents, and was based on the 1998 Korean National Health and Nutrition Survey Reports. The FFQ-A had 25 food categories. A total of 125 subjects (aged 13 to 15 years) was recruited from a randomly chosen middle school in a middle-income neighborhood in Anyang, South Korea. Each subject completed a FFQ-A, as well as a three-day dietary record. Data from 117 subjects (boys 47, girls 70) was used in the final analyses. Data on the nutrients was analyzed to estimate the Pearson correlations, Spearman rank-order correlations and agreement with categories. The validity of the FFQ-A was assessed relative to a three-day dietary record. The Pearson correlation coefficients for all the subjects were 0.94, 0.87, 0.77, 0.79, 0.49 and 0.68 for energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium, and iron, respectively. Similarly the Spearman rank-order correlation coefficients were 0.94, 0.85, 0.79, 0.81, 0.46, and 0.77 for energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium and iron, respectively. The Kappa values for energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium, and iron were 0.88, 0.67, 0.63, 0.67, 0.26, and 0.59, respectively. The percentage for misclassification of the lowest quartile into the highest quartile or vice versa ranged from 0% (energy, carbohydrate, or fat) to 16.7% (Vitamin C). Therefore the FFQ-A has a reasonable ability to assess the energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat intakes as estimated from a three-day dietary record of Korean adolescents.

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[English]
Software for Nutritional Assessment Using a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire and the 24-hour Recall Method: Sang Ah Lee, Kyoungsin Lee, Hyung Sook Kim, Hae Jeung Lee, Haymie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(4):548-558. Published online August 31, 2002

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to develop a computer software program for nutritional assessment using a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (SQFFQs) and the 24-hour Recall Method. The software for the SQFFQ was divided into input, output, and database. For dietary analyses, recipe and food databases were used. The recipe database included 25 items and the food database was divided into 18 food groups. The food database was composed of 19 general nutrient items, 33 fatty acids, and 18 amino acids. The software developed in this study can be summarized as follows: 1) input items related to the individual's ages information, lifestyle, biological values, and dietary habits; 2) individualized data in percent of the Korean RDA, the energy ratios of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the ratio of animal to plant source intakes, and the distribution of food group intakes; 3) Statistical data on the individual's information, lifestyle, biological values, and dietary intakes including the frequency of intake of cooked foods, the amounts of food, and the number of food groups, and nutrients. In the 24-hour Recall Method, the input and output consisted of the individual's information and cooked dish intakes. The individual's report included the amounts of nutrient intake according to number of meal and days, in comparison to the Korean RDA, the energy ratio for carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the ratio of animal to plant source intakes, and the distribution of food group intakes. The statistical report presented the number of food groups and foods, and the nutrient intakes. To evaluate the validity of the SQFFQ, the Spearman Rank Order Correlation and kappa values were used. As a result, correlation coefficients comparing the 24-hour Recall Method appeared to be more than 0.5, except for vitamin B1, B2, niacin, and vitamin E. The kappa values for energy and carbohydrate intakes were both 0.7, and protein, fat, vitamin C, folate, Ca, and iron intakes ranged from 0.3 to 0.7.

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[English]
A Study on Validity of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for Korean Adults: Jee Seon Shim, Kyung Won Oh, Il Suh, Mi Yang Kim, Chun Young Sohn, Eun Joo Lee, Chung Mo Nam; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(4):484-494. Published online August 31, 2002

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to validate the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire that was developed to assess the intakes of fatty acids, as well as energy, carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals and vitamins in Korean adults. The validity of the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire was tested on 78 subjects (31 men, 47 women) aged 34 to 66 years. The semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire included 93 food items and was validated on two 3-day dietary records. The mean intakes and the Spearman Correlation Coefficients between the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire and the two 3-day dietary records were analyzed for each nutrient and food group level. The mean nutrient intakes obtained from the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire were estimated to be greater than those of the two 3-day dietary records. The Spearman Correlation Coefficients between the energy-adjusted nutrient intakes from the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire and the two 3-day dietary records ranged from 0.24 for polyunsaturated fatty acids to 0.55 for fat in men and from 0.29 for polyunsaturated fatty acids to 0.55 for saturated fatty acids in women, respectively. The Spearman Correlation Coefficients for food intake ranged from 0.11 for teas and beverages to 0.58 for grains and their products in men, -0.04 for potatoes and starches to 0.73 for milk and dairy products in women. Foods consumed regularly had lower intra-person variation and tended to have higher observed correlation coefficients. These results indicate that the semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire is a useful tool for estimating nutrient intakes, particularly of total fat and saturated fatty acid intakes.

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[English]
Development and Validation of a Computerized Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire Program for Evaluating the Nutritional Status of the Korean Elderly: Hae Jeung Lee, Seon Joo Park, Jung Hee Kim, Cho Il Kim, Kyung Ja Chang, Kyeong Sook Yim, Kyung Won Kim, Hay Mie Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(2):277-285. Published online April 30, 2002

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to develop a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SQ-FFQ) for subjects aged 50yr and over and to evaluate the validity of this SQ-FFQ. Dietary intake was assessed using SQ-FFQ that included 98 commonly consumed flood items selected from the results of the Korean Health and Nutritional Survey, 1998. Subjects (n = 2,660) aged 50yr and over were recruited from 7 metropolitan cities and 8 small cities. Each subject was interviewed using this SQ-FFQ developed in our laboratory and 24hr-recall method. Excluding incomplete data, Data from 1,149 subjects were used in this validity study. The nutrient intakes assessed by this SQ-FFQ were validated by comparing with the results from 1 day 24-hour recalls. Pearson's correlation coefficients between two methods were 0.71, 0.64, 0.53, and 0.43 for energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat, respectively for all subjects. Spearman's correlation coefficients were higher than those of Pearson's correlation coefficients. Kappa values for energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat were 0.79, 0.72, 0.70, and 0.64, respectively. The percentage for misclassification of the lowest quartile into the highest quartile or vice versa was 1.25-1.39% for all nutrients. Therefore, this SQ-FFQ seems to be useful in assessing the nutritional status of the middle-aged and elderly subjects in Korea.

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[English]
Development of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for Pre-school Children in Korea: Young Lim, Se Young Oh; Korean J Community Nutr 2002;7(1):58-66. Published online February 28, 2002

Abstract PDF: The purpose of the study was to develop and evaluate the reliability of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SFFQ) intended to measure mainly nutrient intake (energy, protein, fat, calcium and iron) related to growth in pre-schoolers in Korea. Based on foods with up to 90 cumulative percent contribution of the 5 nutrients, we developed a SFFQ for 86 foods. In order to evaluate the reliability of both nutrient and food intakes, caregivers of a sample of 101 children aged 4 to 6 years completed the SFFQ repeatedly at 3 month intervals. There were small differences in the nutrient intakes assessed by the SFFQ ranging from 0.55% to 9.91%. There were no significant differences in nutrient values calculated from the repeat questionnaires, except in the case of niacin and vitamin C. The Pearson correlation coefficients of most of the nutrients ranged form 0.54 to 0.75 (mean = 0.66). When energy intake was adjusted, there was approximately a 0.2 decrease in the correlation coefficient of most nutrients, due to the high correlation of energy intake with other nutrients (r=0.7-0.9). The amount of food intake differed by 0.1 to 66.4% (mean = 17.5%), depending on the food item. Out of 86 foods, 74 foods (86%) showed less than a 30% difference in intake and 30 foods (35%) showed less than a 10% difference. Only 6 (7%) out of the 86 foods presented statistically significant differences in intake. The Spearman correlation coefficients of most food intakes assessed repeatedly by the SFFQ ranged from 0.4 to 0.7. Reproducibility of the nutrient and food intakes found in this study was better or similar to those found in cases of Korean adults. Therefore, the SFFQ developed in the present study can be a useful tool to assess the dietary intake of pre-schoolers in Korea.

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[English]
A Study on the Factors Influencing Food Consumption by Food Frequency Questionnaire far the Middle Aged and Elderly Living in the Chonju Area: Mee Sook Lee, Mee Kyung Woo; Korean J Community Nutr 2001;6(5):789-797. Published online December 31, 2001

Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to find the differences in food consumption frequency of the middle aged(male 20, female 50) and the elderly(male 15, female 15) living in Chonju in December, 1998 according to food habits, smoking, alcohol drinking and exercising habit, health status, and the levels of nutrition knowledge and attitude store. The foods frequently consumed among the subjects were kimchi(15.4/week), mixed rice(11.5/week), rice(7.6/week), vegetables in soup, jjigae and jorim(5.0/week), mandarins and oranges(5.e/week), and seasoned laver(4.3/week). There were several factors influencing food consumption patterns. These were age, regularity of meal times, the status of smoking, alcohol drinking and exercising, and the level of nutrition attitude. The elderly ate cooked rice more frequently, while the middle aged ate fish, especially blue fishes more frequently. The middle aged who had breakfast regularly ate milk and milk products, legumes and fruits frequently. Those who smoked seemed to eat less cereals and starches and fats, while those who didn't smoke ate more sugars. The alcohol drinking group also ate less fats and the exorcising group ate almost all of food groups frequently. The status of health showed to be related with food consumption patterns. The normal group in hemoglobin ate eggs more frequently than the anemia group and the high risk group in blood pressure ate almost all of food groups more frequently. The high level group for nutrition attitude score chose vegetables, fruits, and milk and milk products more frequently than the other groups. On the other hand, low level group for nutrition attitude score was apt to eat ramyun, ham-sausage, and carbonated beverages more frequently. Therefore, nutrition education to improve the food habits find to change nutrition attitude is necessary to promote health status anti mole attention should be taken to the high risk group in blood pressure to guide proper food and nutrition intakes.

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[English]
Factors Influencing Food Consumption by Food Frequency Qustionnaire of University Students in Taejon: Mee Sook Lee, Joung Won Lee, Mee Kyung Woo; Korean J Community Nutr 2001;6(2):172-181. Published online May 31, 2001

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study is to analyze the foods which 424(male 171, female 253) university students surveyed consumed frequently and to evaluate and the factors affecting their food consumption patterns. The survey was conducted at the beginning of nutrition courses each semester, March and September, 1998, with the questionnaire composed of general information, food, drinking and smoking habits, nutrition knowledge/attitude and food frequency questionnaire. The rates of alcohol drinking in male and female students were 89.2% and 78.1% respectively, and the rates of smoking were 68.1% and 1.6% in males and female. The nutrition knowledge score was higher in females than in males, but the nutrition attitude score was not significantly different between the male and female groups. The foods frequently consumed among students were cooked rice(14.3/week), kimchi(11.1/week), coffee(5.7/week), vegetables in soup, jjigae and jorim(3.5/week), carbonated beverages(3.3/week), cooked mixed rice(3.2/week). Ramyun and chocolate candies biscuits were frequently consumed, too. There were several factors influencing food consumption patterns. These were gender, regularity of mealtimes, the status of alcohol drinking and smoking, residence type and the levels of nutrition knowledge and attitude. Males ate more frequently cooked rice, coffee, carbonated beverages, ramyun, functional beverages and ham sausage, while females ate more frequently cooked mixed rice and fruits. Those who had the habits of irregular mealtimes seemed to eat more soft drinks, instant foods and snacks. These trends were also found in the alcohol drinking and smoking groups. High level groups for nutrition knowledge of attitude score chose raw yellow green and green vegetables, cooked mixed rice, soybeans and seaweeds more frequently than the other groups. On the other hand, low level groups for nutrition knowledge or attitude score were apt to eat carbonated beverages and ramyun more frequently. Therefore, more attention should be taken to males, having habits of irregular mealtimes, alcohol drinking and smoking, and low level groups for nutrition knowledge or attitude score so as to improve their health.

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[English]
The Study of Associations among Serum Lipids, Anthropometric Measurements, Food Intake Frequency and Nutrient Intake in Healthy Adults: Da Hong Lee, In Sook Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2000;5(4):642-653. Published online December 31, 2000

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to investigate the association among food intake frequency, nutrient intake, anthropometric measurements, and serum lipids in 100 women and 85 men aged 40-74yrs residing in Jeonju City. Food intake frequency and nutrient intake were obtained from one-day dietary recalls. The results were as follows : The mean height, body weight and BMI were 161 cm, 62.5 kg, and 24 kg/m2 respectively. The mean of SBP and DBP were 118 mmHg, 77 mmHg respectively. The mean of TC and TG were 185.5 mg/dl, 153 mg/dl respectively. The mean daily energy and carbohydrate intake was 85. 7%, 91% of RDA for Koreans respectively and that protein intake was 118.5% of RDA. The TC levels of subjects less than 75%, 75-125%, more than 125% of RDA energy were 176 mg/dl, 192 mg/dl, 185 mg/dl respectively(p<0.01). The TC levels less than 75%, 75-125%, more than 125% of RDA protein were 180 mg/dl, 190 mg/dl, 175 mg/dl respectively(p<0.05). TC levels less than 75%, 75-125%, more than 125% of RDA fat were 181 mg/dl, 193 mg/dl, 194 mg/dl respectively(p<0.05). Of the subjects, 18% ate mushrooms. The BMI of the mushroom eaten was 24 and that of non-mushroom eaten was 25(p<0.05). Of the subjects, 28% consumed milk and milk produce. The mean level of TC and TG in milk and milk products eaters were 181 mg/dl, 131 mg/dl and that of non milk and milk products eaters were 197 mg/dl, 159 mg/dl(p<0.001, p<0.05). Of the subjects, 58% ate fish. The HDL-C of the fish eaten was 50 mg/dl and that of non-fishes eaten was 45 mg/dl(p<0.05).

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[English]
Comparisons of Nutrients Intake of Normocholesterolemia and Hypercholesterolemia in the Postmenopausal Women: Sangyeon Kim, Kyungah Jung, Yoon Jung Choi, Seok Kie Lee, Yukyung Chang; Korean J Community Nutr 2000;5(3):461-474. Published online September 30, 2000

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to explore the difference in nutrient intakes between normocholesterolemia and hypercholesterolemia. The subjects were classified as normocholesterolemia and hypercholesterolemia based on The Guideline for Korean Hyperlipidemia. A semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire was used to measure the dietary intakes of the subjects. The results obtained are summarized as follows. Intakes of nutrients such as energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, minerals, and antioxidant vitamins were not significantly different between the normocholesterolemia group and hypercholesterolemia group. However, antioxidant vitamins and folate intakes in the hypercholesterolemia group tended to be lower than those in the normocholesterolmia group. Intakes of vitamin A, vitamin E, and Ca in normocholesterolemia was much less than the RDA for those nutrients in normocholesterolemia. Cholesterol intake in the hypercholesterolemia group was significantly higher than that in the normochoesterolemia group. However, mean cholesterol intake(240 mg/day) of the hypercholesterolemia group was much less than that of Americans whose cholesterol intake was 400 - 500 me/day. Fatty acid intakes were not significantly different between normocholesterolemia and hypercholesterolemia groups but the hypercholesterolemia group tended to consume omega3 fatty acids less than the normocholesterolemia group. Out data indicate that cholesterol intake is man important determinant of serum cholesterol levels in postmenopausal women. The results of this study provide information that is important in designing appropriate dietary guidelines for hypercholesterolemia in postmenopausal women.

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[English]
Validity of Self-administered Semiquantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire by Conditions of One Portion Size: Mija Kim, Youngok Kim, Sukil Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 1998;3(2):273-280. Published online May 31, 1998

Abstract PDF: This study was designed to estimate the improvement of Validity for food frequency questionnaire(FFQ) by offering multiple choice portion size in developing a questionnaire. Validity of the two methods(food frequency questionnaire I=FFQ I & Food frequency questionnaire II=FFQ II) was tested in comparison with reference method of the 7-day weighed record(7DWR). Dietary consumption data of the thred methods(FFQ I, FFQ II & 7DWR) were colleced from 101 female university students for the analysis. Validity was measured in two categories : One was the nutrient intake value from the three methods, the other was the identification of between individual variation within the group. Spearman's rank order correlation test and distributio graphs were used for the analysis. The result showed that individual intake value of the FFQ II was closer to that of the 7DWR than that of the FFQ I.Spearman's rank order correlation between the FFQ II and the 7DWR did not show any improved correlation. The distribution graphs of nutrient intake derived from both the FFQ I and the FFQ II were different from that of the 7DWR. Therefore, it could be sugested that single one protion size food frequency questionnaire is an equally efficient method as a multiple choice food frequency questionnaire to be adopted in epidemiologic studies.

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[English]
A Study of the Dietary Intake Status and One Portion Size of Commonly Consumed Food and Dishes in Korean Elderly Women: Sang yeon Kim, Kyungah Jung, Bokyung Lee, Yukyung Chang; Korean J Community Nutr 1997;2(4):578-592. Published online October 31, 1997

Abstract PDF: The use of semiquantitative food frequency to estimate dietary intake has become widespread in nutritional epidemiologic studies. It had been suggested that knowledge about a person's usual portion size of each meal in addition to consumption frequency will improve the accuracy of this method. This study was performed to investigate the dietary intake status(nutrient, food, and dish intake) and one portion size of commonly consumed food and dishes to develop a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire that will be used to expore the relationship between the incidence of cardiovascular disease and diet in Korean women after menopause. Intake of food or dish in 123 elderly women were measured by 3-day food records in March to May, 1996. The results obtained in this study were summarized as follow : 1) Calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin E intakes were less adequate than Recommended dietary allowances(RDA). 2) The subjects who consumed more than 20% of the energy from fat were 35% and the subjects consumed dietary cholesterol more than 300mg were 18%. 3) The most frequently consumed foods or dishes by the subjects were Korean cabbage kimchi

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[English]
The Development and Evaluation of a Simple Semi-quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess the Dietary Intake of Adults in Large Cities: Hee Ja Lee, Haeng Shin Lee, Myung Ju Ha, Seung Hee Kye, Choi Il Kim, Choong Won Lee, Jin Sook Yoon; Korean J Community Nutr 1997;2(3):349-365. Published online August 31, 1997

Abstract PDF: Using data obtained from 1,473 adults aged 18-68 yrs, residing in large cities and by use of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, we assessed the relative importance of various foods as indicators of both the amount and the variability of selected nutrient intake to develop a simple food frequency questionnaire. Since Cronbach's alpha value of the questionnaire including 78 food items was 0.76, the reliability of this questionnaire was acceptable. A large fraction of the variability of nutrient intake in this population could be explained by the small number of food items. The estimation of dietary nutrient intake such as total calories or protein content, which are derived from almost all foods, will require more food items with nutrients such as calcium or vitamin A, which are concentrated in a few food items. A dietary history ascertaining the intake of as few as 5-19 food items mighted be all needed in order to determent the association between disease outcome and the intake of a single nutrient. There was certainly a high level of agreement with nutrient intake by the sbujects who were cross-classified by quartiles of nutrient indices based on all the food items(78) and by quartiles of nutrient indices based on food items selected by stepwise multiple regression for selected nutrients. The data provided further evidence that useful information on dietary intake over an extended period can be obtained by a simple and relatively inexpensive food frequency questionnaire.

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