Korean Journal of Community Nutrition

Research Articles

[Korean]
Application of a living lab model to an evidence-based reduced-sodium healthy eating practice program in Korea: a pre-post study: Jung-Hyun Kim, Eugene Shim, Min Sook Kyung, Sooyoun Kwon, Hyoung Su Park, Jae-Heon Kang; Korean J Community Nutr 2025;30(1):53-63. Published online February 28, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.00346

Abstract PDF: Objectives
To apply a healthy dietary program with reduced sodium intake, developed using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), focusing on the sodium intake level and eating patterns.
Methods
The program was implemented using a living lab model, an open innovation ecosystem for user-centered problem-solving. Analysis of the KNHANES data revealed that older age groups had a low energy intake but a high sodium intake, particularly among those who frequently dined out. The program was designed to improve sodium-reduction literacy and enhance practical competency. Over four weeks, 40 participants tracked their dietary intake and worked with a clinical nutritionist through a process of diagnosis, experience, improvement, and expansion. A self-administered survey was conducted before and after the program to assess effectiveness.
Results
Participants were four teenagers (10%), 26 in their twenties (65%), and 10 aged ≥ 30 years (25%), with eight males (20%) and 32 females (80%). Post-program analysis showed significant improvements in sodium-related nutrition knowledge (P < 0.01), with increased agreement on adopting low-sodium intake practices (e.g., interest in sodium content, choosing lower-sodium foods). Nutrient intake analysis showed a decrease in energy, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins (P < 0.001), with sodium intake decreasing from 3,382.37 mg/d to 2,119.05 mg/d (P < 0.001).
Conclusion
The community-based, living lab model for the sodium-reduction program effectively improved participant sodium-reduction literacy and practical competency, suggesting that step-by-step, autonomous learning, can reduce sodium intake and promote healthier eating habits.

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[English]
Outcome expectations, self-efficacy, eating environment, and eating behaviors by the stages of change in adequate sodium intake among university students: a cross-sectional study: Yeon Gyu Im, Kyung Won Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2024;29(5):382-395. Published online October 31, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.00010

Abstract PDF: Objectives
This study investigated whether outcome expectations, self-efficacy, eating environment, and eating behaviors differed according to the stages of change in adequate sodium intake among university students. Methods: The participants were students recruited from nine universities in Seoul, Korea. An online survey was conducted, and data from 351 participants were analyzed. Participants were classified into pre-action and action stages based on adequate sodium intake. Data were analyzed using t-test, χ2-test, analysis of covariance, and correlation analysis. Results: Participants in the action stage (22.8%) felt fewer disadvantages of eating sodium adequately compared to those in the pre-action stage (77.2%, P < 0.001) and perceived more self-efficacy for healthy eating behaviors (P < 0.001) and controlling sodium intake (P < 0.01). The participants in the action stage also showed more desirable eating behaviors than those in the pre-action stage, including general eating behaviors, behaviors related to sodium intake, and sodium checks (P < 0.001). The physical environment in the action stage was more supportive of adequate sodium intake (P < 0.05). Eating behaviors, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations were significantly correlated with the stages of change; however, some differences were noticed in the correlation of the subscales of variables with the stages of change when examined by sex. Conclusion: We observed differences in factors according to the stages of change in adequate sodium intake. For the pre-action stage, nutrition education can be planned to modify negative expectations of eating adequate sodium, foster self-efficacy, and practice general eating behaviors and behaviors to gradually reduce sodium intake. It is also necessary to alter the physical environment to reduce sodium intake. In the action stage, support and reinforcement are needed to continually practice and maintain desirable eating behaviors. Nutrition education for women may be planned using multiple paths, whereas a simple strategy may be useful for men.

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[English]
Changes in the importance and performance of low-sodium management among childcare center cooks in Yongin, South Korea, after salinometer support programs: a descriptive study: Jiwoo Min, Youngmi Lee, Yunhee Chang, Yujin Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2024;29(4):304-317. Published online August 31, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.00004

Abstract PDF: Objectives
This study aimed to evaluate the importance and performance of sodium reduction practices among childcare center cooks in the Yongin area before and after a 3-month salinometer support program.
Methods
In total, 313 cooks employed in childcare centers in Yongin were surveyed before and after participating in a salinometer support program. The survey included questions on general information, sodium-related dietary habits, and perceived importance and performance levels of sodium reduction approaches in the purchasing, cooking, and serving areas. The centers were divided into childcare centers registered as group-feeding facilities (FS group, n = 68) and those not registered as such (non-FS group, n = 245). The differences between the two groups were analyzed.
Results
The overall importance levels increased significantly after the program in both the FS-group (P < 0.001) and non-FS group (P = 0.005). The overall performance levels also increased significantly in both groups (P < 0.001 for all). Consequently, the significant difference between the importance and performance levels disappeared in both groups after the program. However, unlike the FS group, which showed no significant differences between the importance and performance levels after the program in all three areas, the non-FS group still demonstrated lower performance levels than importance levels in the purchasing (P = 0.011) and serving (P = 0.034) areas after the program.
Conclusions
The use of salinometers significantly enhanced the performance and importance of low-sodium management practices among cooks in childcare centers, especially in the FS group. The continuous monitoring of salinity measurements and tailored education specialized for the FS and non-FS groups are recommended.

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[English]
Relationship of sodium index with the obesity indicators of university students in Daegu, South Korea: a cross-sectional study: Young-Won Jang, Jian Ma, Yeon-Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2024;29(3):189-198. Published online June 30, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2024.29.3.189

Abstract PDF: Objectives
The sodium index is an index that converts the estimated sodium intake calculated using a verified and reliable sodium estimation formula. This study aimed to determine the relationship between the sodium index and obesity indicators and the potential impact of excessive sodium consumption on obesity.
Methods
Obesity indicators, such as body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and visceral fat levels, were analyzed in 120 university students (60 men and 60 women). The sodium index was calculated by indexing the estimated sodium intake according to age, sex, BMI, salt-eating habits, and salt-eating behaviors. The relationship between sodium index and obesity indicators was analyzed using multiple logistic regression.
Results
The estimated sodium intake was 3,907.1 mg, with 76.7% of the participants categorized under the “careful” level of sodium index and 10.8% under the “moderate” level. As the sodium index increased, the BMI, body fat percentage, WHR, and visceral fat levels significantly increased. All obesity indicators significantly increased in patients with a “severe” sodium index than in those with a “moderate” sodium index. In addition, a strong positive correlation was identified between obesity indicators and sodium index. When the “severe” sodium index was compared with the “moderate” sodium index, the risk of obesity based on body fat percentage increased by 2.181 times (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.526–3.118), while the risk of obesity based on visceral fat level increased by 4.073 times (95% CI, 2.097–7.911).
Conclusions
Our findings suggest a correlation between excessive sodium intake and obesity. Moreover, the sodium index can be used to determine sodium intake.

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[English]
The frequency of convenience food consumption and attitude of sodium and sugar reduction among middle and high school students in Seoul: a descriptive study: Seoyeon Park, Yeonhee Shin, Seoyeon Lee, Heejung Park; Korean J Community Nutr 2023;28(4):269-281. Published online August 31, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2023.28.4.269

Abstract PDF

Objectives
This study aimed to examine the frequency of convenience food consumption at convenience stores (CVS) and the CVS usage patterns of middle and high school students as well as to understand students’ attitude toward sodium and sugar reduction.
Methods
We used an online questionnaire for data collection. The questionnaire comprised five distinct categories: general characteristics, CVS usage, frequency of consumption according to convenience food menus at CVS, attitude toward sodium and sugar reduction, and adherence to dietary guidelines.
Results
A total of 75 students from Seoul (14 middle school students and 61 high school students) participated in the study. Most respondents visit CVS 3-5 times a week. CVS are predominantly used during weekdays, mostly during lunch, and dinner. The students mostly checked the caloric content and expiration date as food labeling information. The participants were aware of the need to reduce their sugar and sodium intake. Among frequent CVS convenience food consumers, there was an increased consideration of the need to reduce their sugar and sodium consumption, despite their actual selection of foods with high sugar and sodium content. Additionally, they did not check the sugar and sodium levels indicated in food labeling. Further, the dietary action guide from the Ministry of Health and Welfare were poorly followed by most students.
Conclusions
There is a need for nutrition education specifically addressing the sugar and sodium content of the convenience foods predominantly consumed by students. Additionally, educating students with frequent convenience food consumption to actively check the sugar and sodium information on food labels could help promote healthier food choices.

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Co-occurrence network and pattern of school lunch using big data and text-mining using data from the 2021–2023 school meal menu information on the NEIS open educational information portal: an exploratory study
Hyeyun Kang, Jimi Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(6): 514. CrossRef

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[Korean]
Dietary sodium and potassium intake of Koreans estimated using 2 different sources of their contents in foods, Food & Nutrient Database and the Korean Total Diet Study : a comparative study: Jee Yeon Lee, Sung Ok Kwon, Soo Hyun Lee, Min Jeong Seo, Gae Ho Lee, Cho-il Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2023;28(3):235-244. Published online June 30, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2023.28.3.235

Abstract PDF: Objectives
Based on the results from the Korean Total Diet Study (KTDS), the sodium (Na) and potassium (K) intake of Koreans were estimated and compared with intake estimates from the Food & Nutrient Database (FNDB), as in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) to verify the validity of these estimates.
Methods
One hundred and thirty-four representative foods (RFs) covering 92.5% of the total food intake of Koreans were selected, and 228 pairs of corresponding ‘RF x representative cooking method’ were derived by reflecting the methods used mainly in terms of frequency and quantity in their cooking. RF samples were collected from three cities with a larger population size in three regions (nine cities) nationwide, and six composite samples were made for each RF, considering its regional and/or seasonal characteristics. One thousand three hundred and sixty-eight ‘RF x representative cooking method’ pair samples were prepared, and the Na and K contents were assessed using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-MS). The Na and K intake of the Korean population was estimated by linking the content with the food intake data from the 7th KNHANES.
Results
The mean Na and K intake of Koreans were 2,807.4 mg and 2,335.0 mg per person per day, respectively. A comparison with the Na and K intake from KNHANES, including only RFs of KTDS, showed comparable results with less than 5% variation. While the contribution and ranking of food items to Na intake were similar between KNHANES and KTDS, there were differences in K intake. This was attributed to the large discrepancies in the K content of rice and coffee between KTDS results and the values in the 9th Revision of the National Food Composition Table used in KNHANES.
Conclusions
The Na and K intake of Koreans estimated based on the KTDS, which performed nutrient analysis on samples prepared to a ‘table-ready’ state using foods of the representative collection, was similar and comparable with that of KNHANES. This supports the validity and usefulness of FNDB-based nutrient intake estimation at the population level. The list of nutrients studied in KTDS is expected to be expanded, allowing for intake estimation of nutrients with currently insufficient or absent information in the FNDBs in use.

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[Korean]
Comparison of Sodium Reduction Practice and Estimated Sodium Intake by Salty Food Preference on Employees and Customers of Sodium Reduction Restaurant in Daegu, Korea: Su-Jin Lee, Keon-Yeop Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2022;27(1):27-35. Published online February 28, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2022.27.1.27

Abstract PDF

Objectives
The purposes of this study were to compare the degree of sodium reduction practice and estimate sodium intake by salty food preference.
Methods
Sodium reduction practices, salty food preferences and estimated sodium intake were surveyed for restaurant owners (n = 80), employees (n = 82) and customers (n = 727) at the restaurants participating in the sodium reduction project in Daegu, Korea. Estimated sodium intake was performed by examining sex, age, body mass index (BMI), salty eating habit and dietary behaviors.
Results
The degree of sodium reduction practice was significantly higher in salinity meter use (P < 0.001), low salt seasonings (P < 0.001) and efforts to make the foods as bland as possible overall (P < 0.001) in the restaurants participating in sodium reduction project than in homes (P < 0.001). The degree of sodium reduction practice appeared lower in the high salty food preference group than in the low-preference group in such items as efforts to make the foods as bland as possible overall (P < 0.05) and washing the salty taste and then cooking (P < 0.05). The high-preference group showed high-salt dietary behavior, including eating all the soup until nothing was left (P < 0.05) more than the low-preference group, but low-salt dietary behavior included checking the sodium content in processed foods (P < 0 .0 5) less than the low-preference group. The high-preference group was higher in the soup and stew intake frequency than the low-preference group (P < 0.05) and much lower in nuts (P < 0.05) and fruits (P < 0.05) intake frequency. The high-preference group had a higher salty eating habit (P < 0.05), salty taste assessment (P < 0.05) and estimated sodium intake (P < 0.05) than the low-preference group.
Conclusions
The present study showed that the salty food preference was strongly associated with lower sodium reduction practice and higher estimated sodium intake.

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Amelioration of metabolic disturbances and adipokine dysregulation by mugwort (Artemisia princeps P.) extract in high-fat diet-induced obese rats
Yun-Hye Kim, Chung-Mu Park, Gun-Ae Yoon
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2016; 49(6): 411. CrossRef
Comparison of Serum Adiponectin Levels According to Body Mass Index and Dietary Behaviors of Female University Students in Seoul
Mi Joung Kim, Hyun Young Jun, Hye Bog Rha
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2013; 18(4): 354. CrossRef
Effects of age on changes of body composition through caloric restriction in overweight and obese women
Jung-Eun Yim, Young-Seol Kim, Ryowon Choue
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2013; 46(5): 410. CrossRef
Nutrient Intake, the Concentrations of Leptin, Adiponectin, Cotisol & Insulin by the Body Fat Content of Women
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Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2012; 17(6): 714. CrossRef
Relationship between Nutrients Intakes, Dietary Quality, and Serum Concentrations of Inflammatory Markers in Metabolic Syndrome Patients
Misung Kim, Juyoung Kim, Wookyung Bae, Sohye Kim, Yesong Lee, Woori Na, Cheongmin Sohn
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2011; 16(1): 51. CrossRef
Comparison of Serum Insulin, Leptin, Adiponectin and High Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein Levels according to Body Mass Index and their Associations in Adult Women
Mi Young Lee, Jung Hee Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2011; 16(1): 126. CrossRef

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[Korean]
Comparison of the Sodium and Sugar Reduction Practices at Samsam Foodservices and General Foodservices in Daegu: Sung-young Kwon, Kilye Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2021;26(4):270-279. Published online August 31, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2021.26.4.270

Abstract PDF

Objectives
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of the sodium and sugar reduction practices of the Samsam foodservice project of Daegu, in comparison with that of general foodservices in Daegu. Methods: A survey was conducted on 80 Samsam foodservice workers and 80 general foodservice workers from Sep. to Oct. 2020. We compared each worker's taste preferences, stage of behavior change and dietary behavior regarding sodium and sugar, and each foodservice's practices regarding sodium and sugar reduction. Results: There was no significant difference between the salty taste and sweet taste preferences between the workers at the Samsam foodservices and those at the general foodservices. The percentage of foodservice workers in action or maintenance stage of behavior change for eating less salty was higher in the Samsam foodservices than in the general foodservices (P < 0.05). In addition, regarding the degree of saltiness and sweetness of meals, the workers at the general foodservices perceived their meals to be saltier (P < 0.001) and sweeter (P < 0.01) than the workers at Samsam foodservices. The workers at Samsam foodservices had fewer salty dietary behaviors compared to the workers at general foodservices (P < 0.01). The sodium reduction practice was significantly higher in the Samsam foodservices than the general foodservices (P < 0.001), especially in “efforts to make the food as bland as possible overall” (P < 0.001), and “serving less soup and stew” (P < 0.001). The sugar reduction practice too was significantly higher in the Samsam foodservices than the general foodservices (P < 0.001). Conclusions: The Samsam foodservices were shown to be better in the practice of sodium and sugar reduction compared to general foodservices. Therefore, it is necessary to provide continuous and practical support and incentives at the national level to expand the sodium and sugar reduction practices in foodservices.

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Comparison of participant and non-participant perceptions on healthy restaurant for sodium reduction: a qualitative study
Jeehee Pyo, Mina Lee, Yunjeong Jang, Minsu Ock
Nutrition Research and Practice.2023; 17(3): 503. CrossRef

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[English]
Sodium Reduction Practice and Importance-Performance Analysis of Sodium Reduction Methods in School Foodservice in Daegu: Su-Hyeon Kim, Eun-Kyung Shin, Yeon-Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(5):386-395. Published online October 31, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.5.386

Abstract PDF

Objectives
The aim of this study was to investigate sodium reduction practices in school foodservice in Daegu. Methods The survey included 199 nutrition teachers and dietitians working at elementary, middle and high schools in Daegu. The survey topics included the following: the frequency of salinity measurement, workers in charge of the measurement, average salinity of the soup and stew served, frequency and difficulties of offering low-sodium meals, Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) of sodium reduction methods in school foodservice and the need for political support in encouraging sodium reduction. Results The mean salinity of the soup and stew was higher in high school foodservice than in elementary and middle school foodservice. Middle and high schools have difficulties in offering low-sodium meals due to concerns of decreasing satisfaction for the meals. The results of the IPA of programs to reduce sodium in school meals showed that most of the items in the cooking and serving stages were in the 2nd quadrant (Keep up the good work), and all purchasing and menu planning stages occupied the 3rd quadrant (Low priority). To reduce sodium in school meals, government support is required in developing low-sodium recipes for school foodservice, encouraging education on sodium reduction for school foodservice officials and developing low-sodium food for institutional foodservice. Conclusions To encourage sodium reduction in school meals, the priority is to make low-sodium recipes available. Also, it is necessary to develop a program that calculates the sodium content in menus and processed foods through National Education Information System and to establish standards for sodium levels in school foodservice.

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Changes in the importance and performance of low-sodium management among childcare center cooks in Yongin, South Korea, after salinometer support programs: a descriptive study
Jiwoo Min, Youngmi Lee, Yunhee Chang, Yujin Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(4): 304. CrossRef
충북지역 중등학생의 건강식생활 관련 식행동과 영양관리 정책에 대한 인식
은서 고, 영은 이
Korean Journal of Food and Cookery Science.2023; 39(3): 197. CrossRef
Importance-performance analysis of sodium reduction practices by school nutrition teachers and dietitians in the Republic of Korea
Youngmi Lee, Sooyoun Kwon, Meeyoung Kim
Nutrition Research and Practice.2023; 17(4): 812. CrossRef
Comparison of Sodium Reduction Practice and Estimated Sodium Intake by Salty Food Preference on Employees and Customers of Sodium Reduction Restaurant in Daegu, Korea
Su-Jin Lee, Keon-Yeop Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2022; 27(1): 27. CrossRef
Comparison of the Sodium and Sugar Reduction Practices at Samsam Foodservices and General Foodservices in Daegu
Sung-young Kwon, Kilye Kim, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2021; 26(4): 270. CrossRef

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5 Crossref

[English]
Validity of Estimating Sodium Intake using a Mobile Phone Application of 24-hour Dietary Recall with Meal Photos: Seo-Yoon Kim, Sang-Jin Chung; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(4):317-328. Published online August 31, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.4.317

Abstract PDF

Objective
The objective of this study was to verify the validity of a mobile phone application (app) that applies a 24-hour dietary recall with meal photos, as a means of being a more accurate method of estimating dietary sodium intake.
Methods
Of the 203 subjects enrolled, 172 subjects (84 males and 88 females) were selected for the final analysis, excluding those with an intake less than 500 kcal and urine output less than 500 ml. Dietary sodium assessment methods used for comparing with the 24-hour urinary sodium excretion are as follows: 1) face-to-face 24-hour dietary recall, 2) 24-hour dietary recall using the mobile app, 3) face-to-face 24-hour dietary recall considering liquid intakes from soup, stew, water kimchi and noodle, etc (liquid-based dishes), 4) 24-hour dietary recall using the mobile app considering liquid intakes from liquid-based dishes, and 5) food frequency questionnaire. Repeated ANOVA with Bonferroni method was used for comparing the average sodium intake, and Pearson’s correlation was applied to correlate the methods used.
Results
In women, no significant difference was observed in the average sodium intake between all methods. Moreover, analysis in men and total adults revealed no significant difference between the 24-hour urinary sodium secretion, and 24-hour dietary recall using the app and 24-hour dietary recall using the app considering liquid intakes. Sodium intake by food frequency questionnaire was significantly different when compared with the intake determined from 24-hour urinary sodium excretion. Sodium intake from all methods (except food frequency questionnaire) significantly correlated with values obtained from 24-hour urine sodium excretion.
Conclusions
Results of this study validated a mobile phone app using a 24-hour dietary recall with meal photos to better estimate dietary sodium intakes. It is believed that further studies in the future will enable the application as a tool to more accurately determine sodium intake.

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Nutrition Research and Practice.2023; 17(2): 284. CrossRef
Validity of Interviewer-Administered 24-h Dietary Recalls in Older Korean Women: A Pilot Study
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Nutrients.2023; 15(7): 1757. CrossRef

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Original Articles

[English]
Customers' Perceptions of Operational Status of and Needs for Sodium Reduction in the Industry Foodservice in Seoul: Na Young Yi; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(1):21-31. Published online February 29, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.21

Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
This study aimed to compare customers' perceptions of the need for a low-sodium diet and sodium-reduced operations in the industry foodservice by age. The relationships between health concerns and perceptions of the need for sodium-reduced operations and low-sodium diets in the industry foodservice were analyzed.
METHODS
A survey was conducted among 340 industry foodservice customers aged 20â€“50 years and residing in Seoul, Korea. This study investigated the respondents' health concerns, their perception of the need for sodium-reduced foodservice operations, their perception of a sodium-reduced diet, and the general details of the foodservices they used. A cross-tabulation analysis and ANOVA were performed to identify differences in measurement items by age, and a simple regression analysis was performed to examine relationships between measurement items.
RESULTS
For the customers' perception of the need for a sodium-reduced foodservice operation, the item â€œit is necessary to provide separate spices and sauces to reduce sodium intakeâ€ achieved the highest score (3.88 points out of a possible 5 points). For the perception of a sodium-reduced diet, the item â€œI think it is helpful for one's healthâ€ obtained the highest score (4.13 points). Respondents' health concerns had a positive effect on increasing the level of perception of the need for sodium-reduced foodservice operations and that of a sodium-reduced diet.
CONCLUSIONS
Foodservice nutritionists could help enhance their customers' perceptions of the needs for sodium-reduced foodservice operations and sodium-reduced diets by frequently providing them with sodium-related health information.

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[English]
Comparison of Salinity and Sodium Content by the Salinity Measurement Frequency of Soups of Childcare Centers Enrolled in the Center for Children's Food Service Management in Daegu: Na Yeong Lee, Yeon Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2020;25(1):13-20. Published online February 29, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2020.25.1.13

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
This study examined the salinity of soups provided at childcare centers by measuring the salinity for three years and providing basic data for sodium reduction.
METHODS
The soup salinity was measured using a Bluetooth salinity meter from January 2015 to December 2017 at 80 childcare foodservice establishments enrolled in the Suseong Center for Children's Foodservice Management in Daegu.
RESULTS
An analysis of the soup salinity each year showed that the salinity decreased significantly from 0.48% in 2015 to 0.41% in 2017, particularly in clear soups and soybean soups compared to other soups (P < 0.05). The salinity and sodium content in seafood soups (0.45% and 179.1 mg/100 g, respectively) were highest, followed by soybean soups (0.44%, 175.2 mg/100 g), with perilla seed soups containing the lowest (0.42%, 167.2 mg/100 g) (P < 0.05). The salinity was significantly higher in institutional foodservice establishments than small foodservice establishments (P < 0.001). The salinity and sodium content were the highest in foodservice establishments with a small number of measurements, and the salinity was the lowest in foodservice establishments with salinity measurements performed an average of 151 times each year (three times a week) or more (P < 0.05). The soup salinity was low in the order of winter, spring, summer, and autumn, and the salinity decreased significantly year by year in all seasons. (P < 0.05).
CONCLUSIONS
The soup salinity was significantly lower in foodservice establishments where the salinity was measured more than three times a week, indicating that continuous salinity management is effective.

Citations

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Importance-performance analysis of hygiene and nutrition management in social welfare meal service facilities in selected regions of Jeollanam-do
Do Hee Kim, Hee Kyong Ro
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2025; 58(4): 421. CrossRef
Sodium Reduction Practice and Importance-Performance Analysis of Sodium Reduction Methods in School Foodservice in Daegu
Su-Hyeon Kim, Eun-Kyung Shin, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2020; 25(5): 386. CrossRef

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[English]
Salinity of Representative Korean Foods High in Sodium from Home Meals, Foodservices, and Restaurants: Lin Jiang, Damin Shin, Yeon Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(4):333-340. Published online August 31, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.4.333

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
This study was conducted to analyze the salinity of representative Korean foods high in sodium to generate data for use as a fundamental resource for setting salinity standards in foods.
METHODS
A total of 480 foods from 16 representative Korean foods high in sodium were collected from 10 households, 10 industry foodservice establishments, and 10 Korean restaurants in four regions (Capital area, Chungcheong Province, Gyeongsang Province, and Jeolla Province) and analyzed for salinity.
RESULTS
Among the foods, stir-fried anchovies (4.07~4.45%) showed the highest salinity, followed by pickled onion (1.86~2.62%), cabbage kimchi (1.83~2.2%), braised burdock and lotus root (1.79~2.17%), and sliced radish kimchi (1.78~1.89%) (p < 0.001). The salinity of kimchi from home meals (2.2%) was significantly higher than that of foodservice (1.83%) and restaurant (1.93%) kimchi (p < 0.05). Salinity in each group of food was highest in kimchi (1.83~2.04%), followed by braised dishes (1.54~1.78%), steamed dishes (1.0~1.22%), stir-fried dishes (1.02~1.18%), and soup or stew (0.74~1.02%) (p < 0.001). The salinity of soup and stew from restaurants (1.02%) was significantly higher than that of home meal (0.84%) and foodservice (0.74%) soup and stew.
CONCLUSIONS
Determination of the salinity of representative Korean foods known to be high in sodium by eating place is expected to be useful to establishing guidelines for reduction of salinity.

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Co-occurrence network and pattern of school lunch using big data and text-mining using data from the 2021–2023 school meal menu information on the NEIS open educational information portal: an exploratory study
Hyeyun Kang, Jimi Kim
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(6): 514. CrossRef
A Literature Review Study on Chronic Changes in Yukgaejang
Soon-Ah Choi, Bokyung Ryu, Lana Chung
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2020; 30(1): 1. CrossRef
Sodium Reduction Practice and Importance-Performance Analysis of Sodium Reduction Methods in School Foodservice in Daegu
Su-Hyeon Kim, Eun-Kyung Shin, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2020; 25(5): 386. CrossRef
Comparison of the portion sizes of Korean adults across eating places: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2012–2016)
Hye-Sook Hong, Seon-Joo Park, Do-Kyung Lee, Hae-Jeung Lee
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2020; 53(6): 676. CrossRef
Development of standards for reducing the sodium content and salinity of Korean fermented soybean sauces and representative Korean foods high in sodium
Lin Jiang, Eun-Kyung Shin, Jung-Sook Seo, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2019; 52(2): 185. CrossRef
Current status, perception and practicability of restaurant staffs related to reducing sodium use in Seongnam, Korea
So-Hyun Ahn, Jong Sook Kwon, Kyungmin Kim, Yoonna Lee, Hye-Kyeong Kim
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2019; 52(5): 475. CrossRef

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[English]
Association between Sodium Excretion and Obesity of Adults in Gwangju: Mijin Jo, Young Ran Heo; Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(1):38-47. Published online February 28, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.1.38

Abstract PDF

PURPOSE
The aim of this study was to analyze the association between sodium excretion and obesity for healthy adults in the Gwangju area.
METHODS
The participants included 80 healthy adults aged 19 to 69 years in Gwangju. The dietary intake and sodium excretion were obtained using the 24-hour recall method and 24 hour urine collection. The participants were classified into two groups according to the amount of urinary sodium excretion: (â‰¤ 141.75 mmol/dL, > 141.75 mmol/dL).
RESULTS
After adjusting for sex, age, smoking history, and income, the high excretion of sodium group was significantly higher for weight, body mass index, body fat mass, percent body fat, visceral fat area (VFA), waist circumference, hip circumference, and WHR. The energy and nutrients intake were significant after adjusting for sex, age, smoking history, and income. The LSE group had a significantly higher fat intake and Na/K intake ratio. The HSE group had significantly higher fiber intake, and K intake. As the amount of urinary sodium excretion increased, the risk of obesity before correction was 3.57 (95% CI: 1.13â€“11.25) times greater, and the risk of obesity of T3 increased significantly by 3.33 times (95% CI: 1.05â€“10.59). After correcting for sex and age, the obesity risk of T2 increased significantly by 4.23 times (95% CI: 1.11â€“16.06), and after correcting for sex, age, smoking history, and income, the obesity risk of T2 increased significantly by 6.81 times (95% CI: 1.44â€“32.19) the risk of obesity.
CONCLUSIONS
An association exists between sodium excretion and obesity in Korean adults. In this study, the high excretion of sodium group was obese and the risk of obesity was higher than the low excretion of sodium group.

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Preventive Effects of Whole Grain Cereals on Sarcopenic Obesity in High-fat Diet-induced Obese Mice
Mi-Bo Kim, Sein Lee, Changhee Kim, Jae-Kwan Hwang
Food Engineering Progress.2018; 22(4): 358. CrossRef

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[English]
A Comparison of Sources of Sodium and Potassium Intake by Gender, Age and Regions in Koreans: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2010-2012: Yang Hee Park, Sang Jin Chung; Korean J Community Nutr 2016;21(6):558-573. Published online December 31, 2016; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2016.21.6.558

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the main sources of dietary sodium and potassium intake in Koreans by gender, age and regions.
METHODS
We used the data from 2010-2012 KNHANES. A total of 20,387 subjects aged 8 years and older were included. Intakes were compared by gender, age (8-18, 19-49 and >50 years) and geographical regions in Korea. Dishes were classified into 28 dish groups based on cooking methods. Statistical analysis was performed by using the SAS 9.3 and SUDAAN 11.0.1 software.
RESULTS
The mean sodium intake of Koreans was 4866.5 Â± 35.9 mg/day, which was 2.4 times higher than the adequate intake (AI) of sodium for Koreans. We found that daily sodium intakes were significantly different by age, gender and regions. Men and aged over 50 years had significantly higher sodium intake than women and other age groups. The mean potassium intake in Koreans was 3002.2 Â± 19.4 mg/day and daily potassium intakes were significantly different by age, gender and regions. Women and age 50 years and over had significantly higher potassium intakes than men and other age groups. The average Na/K ratio was 2.89 Â± 0.01 and was highest in men and in the age group of 19-49 years. The major sources of dietary sodium were soup and stew, followed by Kimchi, noodles and dumpling, pickled vegetables and seasonings, which represented 63.1 % of total sodium intakes. Soup and stew or Kimchi were the primary sources of dietary sodium intake. The major sources of dietary potassium were cooked rice, followed by soup and stew, Kimchi, fruits and beverages.
CONCLUSIONS
Sodium and potassium intakes and the major sources of those were significantly different by gender, age groups and regions. Therefore, different approaches based on gender, age and regions are needed to decrease sodium intake and increase potassium intake.

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Dietary Habits of Newly Diagnosed Patients with Breast Cancer in Korea
Jaehoon Shin, Jiyeon Lee, Yooeun Yoon, Hye Sun Lee, Hyungmi Kim, Yu-Jin Kwon, Ji-Won Lee
Korean Journal of Family Medicine.2024; 45(3): 149. CrossRef
Role of geographic characteristics in the spatial cluster detection of cancer: Evidence in South Korea, 1999–2013
Insang Song, Eun-Hye Yoo, Inkyung Jung, Jin-Kyoung Oh, Sun-Young Kim
Environmental Research.2023; 236: 116841. CrossRef
Development and application of the sodium index to estimate and assess sodium intake for Korean adults
Yeon-Kyung Lee, Taisun Hyun, Heekyong Ro, Young-Ran Heo, Mi-Kyeong Choi
Nutrition Research and Practice.2022; 16(3): 366. CrossRef
Trends in sodium intake and major contributing food groups and dishes in Korea: the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2017
Yeseung Jeong, Eui Su Kim, Jounghee Lee, Yuri Kim
Nutrition Research and Practice.2021; 15(3): 382. CrossRef
Predictive Analysis of Food Behavior and Related Factors Using Spatial Analysis: Based on Community Health Survey Data 2016
Se-Mi Jeong, Bok-Mi Jung
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The association of dietary patterns with insulin resistance in Korean adults: based on the 2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
I Seul Kim, Yoon Jung Yang
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2021; 54(3): 247. CrossRef
Effect of nutrition education in reducing sodium intake and increasing potassium intake in hypertensive adults
You-Sin Lee, Moo-Yong Rhee, Sim-Yeol Lee
Nutrition Research and Practice.2020; 14(5): 540. CrossRef
Comparison of Salinity and Sodium Content by the Salinity Measurement Frequency of Soups of Childcare Centers Enrolled in the Center for Children's Food Service Management in Daegu
Na-Yeong Lee, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2020; 25(1): 13. CrossRef
Comparison of the sodium content of Korean soup-based dishes prepared at home, restaurants, and schools in Seoul
Yanghee Park, Jihyun Yoon, Sang-Jin Chung
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Designing optimized food intake patterns for Korean adults using linear programming (II): adjustment of the optimized food intake pattern by establishing stepwise intake goals of sodium
Kana Asano, Hongsuk Yang, Youngmi Lee, Meeyoung Kim, Jihyun Yoon
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2019; 52(4): 342. CrossRef
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Min-Jeong Seo, Chang-Do Lee, Ji-Na Lee, Hee-Jong Yang, Do-Youn Jeong, Gae-Ho Lee
Korean Journal of Food Preservation.2019; 26(1): 101. CrossRef
Association between Sodium Excretion and Obesity of Adults in Gwangju
Mijin Jo, Young-Ran Heo
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2018; 23(1): 38. CrossRef
Diet-Related Risk Factors for Incident Hypertension During an 11-Year Follow-Up: The Korean Genome Epidemiology Study
Hye Ah Lee, Hyesook Park
Nutrients.2018; 10(8): 1077. CrossRef
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Eun-kyung Kim, Byengchun Song, Se-Young Ju
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Effects of Sodium Intake on the Association between the Salt-Sensitive Gene, Alpha-Adducin 1 (ADD1), and Inflammatory Cytokines in the Prevalence of Children Obesity
Mi-Young Park, Myoung-sook Lee
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Dietary intakes of adolescents from food insecure households: analysis of data from the 6th(2013-2015) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Mariam Nakitto, Kana Asano, Injoo Choi, Jihyun Yoon
Nutrition Research and Practice.2017; 11(6): 507. CrossRef

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[English]
Associations between 24-hour Urine Sodium Excretion Level and Obesity-related Metabolic Risk Factors: Hyun Woo Oh, Hyun Jung Kim, Dae Won Jun, Seung Min Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2015;20(6):460-467. Published online December 31, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2015.20.6.460

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Excess sodium intake has been linked to obesity and obesity-related indices. However, the scientific evidence for this association is inadequate. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between urinary sodium excretion and obesity-related indices among Korean adults.
METHODS
A convenience sample of 120 subjects (60 obese and 60 non-obese subjects) were recruited applying frequency matching for sex and age between two groups. Sodium intake level was assessed through 24-hour urine collection. Obesity-related metabolic risk factors, including fasting blood lipid indices, subcutaneous and visceral fat through computed tomography (CT), insulin resistance indices, blood pressure and liver enzymes were measured in all subjects. These obesity-related metabolic risk factors were compared between obese and non-obese group according to sodium excretion levels (<110 mEq/day, 110~180 mEq/day, >180 mEq/day).
RESULTS
After adjusting for age, gender, health behaviors (smoking, exercise, drinking), and energy intake, several obesity-related metabolic risk factors, including abdominal circumference, body fat percentage, subcutaneous and visceral fat, triglyceride, and systolic blood pressure were found to be significantly deteriorated as the sodium excretion level increases. In addition, multivariate adjusted-odds ratios of abdominal obesity, high blood triglyceride, and high blood pressure were found significantly higher in the highest sodium excretion group compared to the lowest group. The mean number of metabolic syndrome risk factors was also significantly greater in the highest sodium excretion group than in the lowest group.
CONCLUSIONS
The current study findings suggested that high sodium intake can affect obesity and metabolic syndrome risk negatively, implying the necessity of future research on low-sodium diet intervention in relation to obesity and related health problems.

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Relationship of sodium index with the obesity indicators of university students in Daegu, South Korea: a cross-sectional study
Young-Won Jang, Jian Ma, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2024; 29(3): 189. CrossRef
Dietary salt intake and kidney function in rural Senegalese populations: a cross-sectional study
Ndongo Modou, Lot Nehemie Motoula Latou, Toure Maimouna, Amadou Diop Dia, Sidy Mohamed Seck
Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Cardiometabolic Risk of Visceral Fat Obesity and Factors Influencing Visceral Fat in Overweight or Obese Middle-Aged Korean Women: A Cross-Sectional Study
Sujin Kim, Nah-Mee Shin, Jiwon Choi
Korean Journal of Adult Nursing.2024; 36(4): 320. CrossRef
The association between dietary sodium intake and obesity in adults by sodium intake assessment methods: a review of systematic reviews and re-meta-analysis
Jounghee Lee, Cheongmin Sohn, Oh-Yoen Kim, Young-Min Lee, Mi Ock Yoon, Myoungsook Lee
Nutrition Research and Practice.2023; 17(2): 175. CrossRef
Relationship between urinary sodium-creatinine ratios and insulin resistance in Korean children and adolescents with obesity
So Yoon Han, Nan Hee Kim, Do Hoon Kim, Kyungdo Han, Seon Mee Kim
Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism.2018; 31(4): 375. CrossRef
Association between Sodium Excretion and Obesity of Adults in Gwangju
Mijin Jo, Young-Ran Heo
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2018; 23(1): 38. CrossRef
Relationship of sodium consumption with obesity in Korean adults based on Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010~2014
Se Young Cheon, Hye Won Wang, Hwa Jung Lee, Kyung Mi Hwang, Hae Seong Yoon, Yoon Jung Kang
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(1): 64. CrossRef
Associations of Obesity and Dyslipidemia with Intake of Sodium, Fat, and Sugar among Koreans: a Qualitative Systematic Review
Yoon Jung Kang, Hye Won Wang, Se Young Cheon, Hwa Jung Lee, Kyung Mi Hwang, Hae Seong Yoon
Clinical Nutrition Research.2016; 5(4): 290. CrossRef

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[English]
Evaluation of Consumer Nutrition Education Program to Reduce Sodium Intake Based on Social Cognitive Theory: So Hyun Ahn, Jong Sook Kwon, Kyung Min Kim, Jin Sook Yoon, Hye Kyeong Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2015;20(6):433-446. Published online December 31, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2015.20.6.433

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
This study was performed to evaluate the consumer education program for reducing sodium intake based on social cognitive theory (SCT) and investigate consumer perceptions of environmental, cognitive and behavioral factors.
METHODS
Consumers (n=4,439) were recruited nationwide in Korea to participate in a nutrition education program for reducing sodium intake which was targeted on senior housewives (SH), parents (P), and office workers (OW). Questions regarding main factors of SCT were asked both before and after the education program.
RESULTS
SH and P recognized external social efforts and information to reduce sodium including nutrition labeling more than OW. The main barriers to practice reducing sodium intake were limited choice of low sodium food and menu, interference with social relationship when dining with others, and limited information, knowledge and skills. SH had lower barriers to practice reducing sodium intake and OW perceived 'preference to soup or stew' and 'preference to Kimchi, salted fish and fermented sauces' as barriers more than other groups at the baseline. Less than 50% of participants knew the relationship between sodium and salt, sodium in nutrition labeling, and recommended sodium intake. In addition, OW had little knowledge for capability to reduce sodium intake and lower self-efficacy to practice compared with SH and P. After education, positive outcome expectations such as lowering blood pressure, prevention of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis were increased and barriers to practice reducing sodium intake were decreased in all groups (p < 0.05). The knowledge for behavioral capability and self-efficacy to reduce sodium intake were also improved but OW had still lower scores compared with other groups.
CONCLUSIONS
These results suggested that nutrition education programs could be an effective tool to impact general population by facilitating awareness and increased capability to reduce sodium intake.

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Consumer acceptance of reduced sodium white and multigrain bread: Impact of flavor enhancement and ingredient information on sample liking
Aubrey N. Dunteman, Soo‐Yeun Lee
Journal of Food Science.2023; 88(1): 417. CrossRef
The frequency of convenience food consumption and attitude of sodium and sugar reduction among middle and high school students in Seoul: a descriptive study
Seoyeon Park, Yeonhee Shin, Seoyeon Lee, Heejung Park
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2023; 28(4): 269. CrossRef
Development and evaluation of a nutrition education program for housewives to reduce sodium intake: application of the social cognitive theory and a transtheoretical model
Sohyun Ahn, Jong-Sook Kwon, Kyungmin Kim, Hye-Kyeong Kim
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2022; 55(1): 174. CrossRef
Customers' Perceptions of Operational Status of and Needs for Sodium Reduction in the Industry Foodservice in Seoul
Na-Young Yi
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2020; 25(1): 21. CrossRef

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[English]
A Study on Sodium-related Dietary Attitude and Behaviors According to Sodium-related Nutrition Knowledge of University Students: Mi Hyun Kim, Jee Young Yeon, Jong Wook Kim, Jae Eon Byun, So Young Bu, Mi Kyeong Choi, Yun Jung Bae; Korean J Community Nutr 2015;20(5):327-337. Published online October 31, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2015.20.5.327

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Dietary life is closely associated with dietary attitude and diet-related knowledge. Particularly, dietary habit such as sodium intake can be affected by various dietary behaviors such as food choices, dietary attitude toward salty food and a preference for salty taste. The purpose of this study was to assess sodium-related nutrition knowledge and to identify sodium-related attitude and behaviors according to the level of sodium-related knowledge of university students.
METHODS
Anthropometric measurements were provided by 408 students who participated in this study. The study participants answered questionnaires to provide information on general dietary behaviors, sodium-related dietary attitude and other behavioral factors. A total score of nutrition knowledge was used to categorize study participants in to two groups, namely, low level in sodium-related knowledge (LNaK) or high level in sodium-related knowledge (HNaK) and the attitude and the behaviors of students toward sodium intake were compared between these two groups.
RESULTS
The ratio of female students in HNaK group was higher than that in the LNaK group. HNaK group had a higher score in checking nutrition label of processed food than the LNaK group. Total score of sodium-related attitude and behaviors of HNaK group were 34.81 and 32.75, respectively and these scores were significantly higher than that of the LNaK group whose scores were 32.57 and 30.57, respectively. Total energy intake was not different between two groups but the intakes of calcium, vitamin B2 and folate were higher in HNaK group than in the LNaK group. Correlation analysis adjusted for age and gender revealed that total score of sodium-related nutrition knowledge was positively correlated with total score of sodium-related attitude and behaviors.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, students who had high level of sodium-related nutrition knowledge had desirable attitude and behaviors toward sodium intake and these results can be considered in nutrition education for university students.

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Maternal nutrition intervention focused on the adjustment of salt and sugar intake can improve pregnancy outcomes
Yuri Seo, Yeon Seon Jeong, Kyung‐A Koo, Jeong In Yang, Yoo Kyoung Park
Food Science & Nutrition.2020; 8(7): 3900. CrossRef
Effect of Protection Motivation Factors on Behavioral Intention to Reduce Sodium Intake among University Students in Gyeongnam and Busan
Soo-Hyun Jang, Eunju Yoon
The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition.2016; 29(1): 104. CrossRef

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[English]
Sodium Related Recognition, Dietary Attitude and Education Needs of Dietitians Working at Customized Home Visiting Health Service: Yun Jeong Mo, Sook Bae Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(6):558-567. Published online December 31, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.6.558

Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to investigate recognition, dietary attitude and education needs for reducing sodium intakes of dietitian at customized home visiting health service (CHVHS).
METHODS
The subjects were 75 dietitian at CHVHS. We investigated several variables (recognition, dietary attitude, education needs for reducing sodium intakes) and determined sodium intakes level of subjects as 'low', 'middle' and 'high' by Dish Frequency Questionnaire 25 (DFQ 25). Also, we assessed the differences in recognition, dietary attitude, sodium intake level and education needs by dietitian career period (under 3 yrs vs. over 3 yrs) at CHVHS.
RESULTS
In recognition related reducing sodium intake, they showed 'checking a sodium content in nutrition labeling' score 2.5/4.0 and 'perception difference between sodium and salt' score 3.1/4.0. There was no difference in the recognition between under 3yrs' group and over 3yrs' group. In dietary attitude related reducing sodium intake, they showed 'palatability for salty taste' score 0.8/1.0, 'attitude in related soups' 0.7/1.0, 'attitude in related using natural spice' 0.6/1.0. There was a difference in 'attitude in related soups' between under 3yrs' group and over 3yrs' group (0.6 vs. 0.7). In sodium intake level by DFQ 25, they showed 'low group' 41.3%, 'middle group' 41.3% and 'high group' 17.3%. There was no difference in the distribution of sodium intake level by the career. In education needs related reducing sodium intakes, there were 'teaching experience' 93.3%, 'have a difficulty in teaching about reducing sodium intakes' 86.6%, and 'necessity of education for CHVHS dietitians' 100.0%. 'Needed education contents for CHVHS dietitians' were ranked as 'cooking way to reduce sodium intake' 58.7%, 'relation between hypertension and sodium' 17.3%, 'composing way to reduce sodium intake' 17.3%. There was a difference in needed education contents 'relationship between hypertension and sodium' (33.3% vs. 2.6%) and 'The cooking way to reduce sodium intake' (38.9% vs. 76.9%) by the career.
CONCLUSIONS
The results suggested that a capacity training program for reducing sodium intake may be needed for dietitians at CHVHS to improve health of the community elderly. For effective training program related reducing sodium intake for dietitians at CHVHS, it may be necessary to consider the career period as dietitians at CHVHS.

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[English]
Blood Pressure and Dietary Related Risk Factors Associated with High Sodium Intake Assessed with 24-hour Urine Analysis for Korean Adults: Yeon Seon Jeong, Hwa Jae Lim, Sook Bae Kim, Hee Jun Kim, Sook Mee Son; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(6):537-549. Published online December 31, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.6.537

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
This study was conducted to examine blood pressure and other characteristics of a high sodium intake group assessed with 24-hr urine analysis and the dietary factors related to the risk of high sodium intake among Korean adults.
METHODS
A cross-sectional study was conducted with adults aged 20-59 years. Subjects who completed 24-hr urine collection (N = 205) were divided into 3 groups (tertile) according to the sodium intake estimated with 24-hour urine analysis. We compared the blood pressure, BMI and dietary related factors of the 3 groups (low, medium, high sodium intake group) with General Linear Model (GLM) and Duncan's multiple range test (p < 0.05). The risk factors related to high sodium intake were assessed with odds ratio (p < 0.05).
RESULTS
The sodium intake (mg/day) of the 3 groups were 3359.8 +/- 627.9, 4900.3 +/- 395.1 and 6770.6 +/- 873.9, respectively, corresponding to daily salt intake (g/day) 8.5, 12.4 and 17.2, respectively. High sodium group showed significantly elevated age, BMI and systolic/diastolic blood pressure. Being male gender was associated with significantly increased risk of sodium intake (OR = 1.972; 95%CI: 1.083-3.593). The other factors related to high sodium intake were higher BMI (> or = 25) (OR = 2.619; 95% CI: 1.368-5.015), current alcohol consumption (OR = 1.943; 95%CI: 1.060-3.564), and having salty soybean paste with salt percentage > 14% (OR = 3.99; 95% CI: 1.404-6.841). The dietary attitude related to increased risk of high sodium intake included 'enjoy dried fish and salted mackerel' (p < 0.001) and 'eat all broth of soup, stew or noodle' (p < 0.001).
CONCLUSIONS
Because high sodium intake was associated with higher blood pressure, nutrition education should focus on alcohol consumption, emphasis on related dietary factors such as using low salt soybean paste, improvements in the habit of eating dried fish and salted mackerel or eating all broth of soup, stew or noodle.

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Effect of fermented soybean on metabolic outcomes, anthropometric indices, and body composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials
Fatemeh Maleki Sedgi, Nazanin Mozaffari, Mohammad Reza Pashaei, Fatemeh Hajizadeh-Sharafabad
Food & Function.2025; 16(2): 389. CrossRef
Comparison between 24-hour diet recall and 24-hour urine collection for estimating sodium and potassium intakes and their ratio among Korean adults
Taisun Hyun, Mi-Kyeong Choi, Young-Ran Heo, Heekyong Ro, Young-Hee Han, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Nutrition Research and Practice.2023; 17(2): 284. CrossRef
Development and application of the sodium index to estimate and assess sodium intake for Korean adults
Yeon-Kyung Lee, Taisun Hyun, Heekyong Ro, Young-Ran Heo, Mi-Kyeong Choi
Nutrition Research and Practice.2022; 16(3): 366. CrossRef
Comparison of Sodium-Related Dietary Behavior and Low-Salt Dietary Attitude Based on the Gender and Salty Taste Assessment of Chinese International Students in the Jeonbuk Area
Qi Li, Ji Eun Lee, Jeong Ok Rho
Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life.2021; 31(2): 91. CrossRef
Estimation model for habitual 24-hour urinary-sodium excretion using simple questionnaires from normotensive Koreans
Ji-Sook Kong, Yeon-Kyung Lee, Mi Kyung Kim, Mi-Kyeong Choi, Young-Ran Heo, Taisun Hyun, Sun Mee Kim, Eun-Soon Lyu, Se-Young Oh, Hae-Ryun Park, Moo-Yong Rhee, Hee-Kyong Ro, Mi Kyung Song, Tatsuo Shimosawa
PLOS ONE.2018; 13(2): e0192588. CrossRef
Relationship of sodium consumption with obesity in Korean adults based on Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010~2014
Se Young Cheon, Hye Won Wang, Hwa Jung Lee, Kyung Mi Hwang, Hae Seong Yoon, Yoon Jung Kang
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(1): 64. CrossRef
Study of the characteristics of dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education for sodium reduction according to the stages of behavioral change in sodium reduction of male adult subjects in Gwangju·Jeonnam regions
Young Ran Heo, Hyun Young Oh, Hee Kyong Ro
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(5): 472. CrossRef
Correlation analysis of sodium-related knowledge, dietary behavior, attitudes towards a low-salt diet and meal attitude guidance for elementary school teachers in Jeonbuk area
Hyun Ok Moon, Jeong Ok Rho
Journal of Nutrition and Health.2017; 50(2): 180. CrossRef
Verification of Utility of Simple Mensuration of Cl-from Urine to Estimate the Amount of Sodium Intake
Sung-Ho Lee, Chae-Joon Lee, Sung-Mi Ju, Hyun-Joo Lee, Wang-Yeon Ra, Soon-Ok Kim
The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition.2016; 29(1): 27. CrossRef

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[English]
The Effects of Low-sodium Diet Education Program on Dietary Habits, Diet Quality and Obesity Index in Overweight and Obese Middle-aged Women: Soo Bin Jeong, Seoyun Park, Sohyun Ahn, Jin Nam Kim, Hye Kyeong Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(6):513-526. Published online December 31, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.6.513

Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of low sodium diet education program on dietary habits, diet quality, and measures of obesity in overweight or obese middle-aged women.
METHODS
Subjects were 81 individuals aged 45 years or over, who completed an 8-week nutrition education. The subjects were divided into a normal group (N = 30) and an overweight-obese group (N = 51) according to the BMI. The effects were evaluated by anthropometric measurement, biochemical analysis, questionnaire, and diet records before and after the program.
RESULTS
Overweight-obese group showed significant decreases in weight (p < 0.0001), BMI (p < 0.0001), percent of body fat (p = 0.0087), waist circumference (p < 0.0001), systolic (p = 0.0003) and diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.0261). Nutrients intakes were not different between the two groups and only sodium intake was decreased after education. Total score of general dietary habits, dietary behavior related to sodium intake, dietary diversity score (DDS), diet variety score (DVS), and diet quality index-international (DQI-I) were improved in both groups compared to the baseline. Overweight-obese group showed significant improvement in 'having fruits everyday', 'having fish everyday', 'trying to eat many kinds of food', 'eating less broth when eating soup, stew, and noodles', 'eating less kimchi and salt-fermented vegetable', and 'propensity to think that dishes should be pretty seasoned'. In addition, moderation of empty calories food (p = 0.0064) and macronutrient ratio (p = 0.0004) were improved in the overweigh-obese group, but in the normal group, the results did not reach statistical significance.
CONCLUSIONS
These results suggested that low sodium diet education program may contribute to obesity management by improving diet quality and dietary habits in middle-aged women.

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[English]
Development of Nutrition Education Program for Consumers to Reduce Sodium Intake Applying the Social Cognitive Theory: Based on Focus Group Interviews: So Hyun Ahn, Hye Kyeong Kim, Kyung Min Kim, Jin Sook Yoon, Jong Sook Kwon; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(4):342-360. Published online August 31, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.4.342

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
This study aimed to develop nutrition education program for consumers to reduce sodium intake based on social cognitive theory (SCT).
METHODS
The main factors of SCT related to low sodium diet were investigated by using focus group interview (FGI) with 30 women who participated in consumer organizations.
RESULTS
The main target groups for the education program were housewives (H), parents (P), and the office workers (OW), for which we considered their influences on other people and the surroundings. According to the results of FGI, in carrying out low sodium diet, 'positive outcome expectation' were prevention of chronic disease and healthy dietary habit, and 'negative outcome expectation' were low palatability of foods, difficulty in cooking meals, and limited choice of foods. The contents of the program and education materials were individualized by each group to raise self-efficacy and behavioral capability, which reflected the results of the FGI. The program included 'salt intake and health' to raise positive outcome expectation. For improving the ability to practice low-sodium diet, the program contained the contents that focused on 'cooking' and 'food purchasing' for H, on 'purchasing and selection of low-sodium food with the children' for P, and on 'way of selecting restaurant menu' for OW. Also the program included 'way of choosing the low-sodium foods when eating out' with suggestions on sodium content of the dishes and snacks. Further, 'dietary guidelines to reduce sodium intake' was also suggested to help self-regulation.
CONCLUSIONS
This nutrition education program and education materials could be utilized for the community education and provide the basis for further consumer targeted education program for reducing sodium intake.

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[English]
The use Frequency and Amount of Food Sources of Sodium and Knowledge Requirement, and Job Satisfaction of Dietitians and Nutrition Teachers according to the School Types in Busan: Jee Young Yeon, Soon Kyu Lee, Baeg Won Kang; Korean J Community Nutr 2014;19(2):198-211. Published online April 30, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.2.198

Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
To investigate the use frequency and amount of food sources of sodium and knowledge requirement, and job satisfaction with school food services according to the school types in Busan.
METHODS
A total of 98 schools were surveyed and knowledge requirement and job satisfaction were assessed using a questionnaire. In addition, the use frequency and amount of food sources of sodium for 10 school days were examined.
RESULTS
The response rate of the most difficult area among dietitians' tasks was significantly high in 'nutrition education and counseling' for elementary schools and 'hygiene management' for high schools (p < .05). The response rate of the factors to be considered in meal planning was significantly high in 'energy and nutrients requirement' for elementary schools and 'menu/taste preference of students' for middle and high schools (p < .05). The response rate of whether school food services affect health and eating habits of students or not was significant high in 'very helpful' for elementary schools (p < .001). The average sodium contents in the meals of elementary, middle and high schools was 1981.4 mg/meal/person/day, 1867.3 mg/meal/person/day and 1,329.9 mg/meal/person/day, respectively. For foods in highest sodium, Kimchi, Oribulgogi, and Kare rice were ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. The main reason for not providing the fruits was 'price' among all groups. The knowledge requirement such as 'nutrition and menu management', 'nutrition education', and 'nutrition counseling' was significantly higher in elementary school compared with middle and high school (p < .001, p < .01, and p < .01 respectively). The dietitians and nutrition teachers of elementary schools have a higher job satisfaction compared with those of middle schools (p < .01). The job satisfaction was positively correlated with knowledge requirement of dietitians and nutrition teachers of elementary and middle schools.
CONCLUSIONS
The results suggest that developing dietitians' education program about knowledge requirement contribute to increasing the school food service and job satisfaction in elementary and middle schools.

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Korean Journal of Food & Cookery Science.2016; 32(2): 222. CrossRef
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Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2016; 21(2): 152. CrossRef

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[English]
Blood Pressure, Sodium Intake and Dietary Behavior Changes by Session Attendance on Salt Reduction Education Program for Pre-hypertensive Adults in a Public Health Center: Eun Jin Jung, Jong Sook Kwon, So Hyun Ahn, Sook Mee Son; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(6):626-643. Published online December 31, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.6.626

Abstract PDF

This study was performed to evaluate the differences in blood pressure, sodium intake and dietary behavior changes according to the extent of session attendance on sodium reduction education program for pre-hypertensive adults in a public health center. Sodium reduction education program consisted of 8 sessions for 8 weeks. Fifty three patients who completed the pre and post nutritional assessments were classified into 2 groups according to the session attendance rate. Nineteen participants who attended the education program 3 times or less (< or = 3) were categorized into the less attendance (LA) group and 34 participants attended 4 times or more (> or = 4) into the more attendance (MA) group. Blood pressure, anthropometric measurements, serum lipid profile, nutrient intakes including sodium, nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior score were assessed before and after the nutrition education program. Mean sodium intakes (p < 0.001), systolic/diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001), and weight (p < 0.001) were significantly decreased in the MA group after sodium reduction education program. Compared to the MA group, mean sodium intakes, systolic/diastolic blood pressure were not significantly changed after the education program even with significantly increased nutrition knowledge (p < 0.05) and dietary behavior score (p < 0.01) in the LA group. It appears that pre-hypertensive adults need to attend the sodium reduction education program for at least 4 times or more to gain beneficial effects from the intervention. Positive feedback of healthcare team or offering more cooking classes may be needed to raise the attendance rate in the sodium reduction education program.

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Effect of nutrition education in reducing sodium intake and increasing potassium intake in hypertensive adults
You-Sin Lee, Moo-Yong Rhee, Sim-Yeol Lee
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Study of the characteristics of dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education for sodium reduction according to the stages of behavioral change in sodium reduction of male adult subjects in Gwangju·Jeonnam regions
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Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.2016; 45(9): 1366. CrossRef
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[English]
A Survey on the Salt Content of Kindergarten Lunch Meals and Meal Providers' Dietary Attitude to Sodium Intake in Gyeonggi-do Area: Jin Nam Kim, Seoyun Park, Sohyun Ahn, Hye Kyeong Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(5):478-490. Published online October 31, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.5.478

Abstract PDF

Dietary habit of excess sodium consumption is formed mainly by excessive salt intake from the younger age and this may lead to hypertension, stroke, and stomach cancer. This study was performed to estimate the salt content in kindergarten meals and provide basic data on meal providers' dietary attitude to sodium intake for nutrition education. We collected data on161 food items from 16 institutions in Gyeonggi-do and salt content was calculated from salinity and weight of individual food items. The average salt content from lunch meals was 2.2 g, which was about daily adequate intake of sodium for children aged 3 to 5 years old. Greatest contributor to the salt content in a meal was soup and stew (47.8%). The most salty dishes were sauces and kimchi followed by stir-fried food, deep-fried food, braised food, and grilled food. The salt content was higher in soup and stew despite of low salinity, due to the large quantity per serving. The salt contents of soups and kimchi were 40.6% and 14.3%, respectively of the total salt content in dish groups. Staff members and caregivers at home who prepared food for the child showed preference for one-dish rice meal, dried fish and salted mackerel, and broth when eating soup, stew, and noodles. Caregivers showed higher sodium index score and had higher preference for processed food such as Ramen, canned food, and ham compared with staff members (p < 0.05). These results suggested that monitoring salt content of kindergarten meals and nutrition education for those prepare meals for children are needed to lower sodium intake in childhood.

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[English]
Survey on Dietary Behaviors and Intakes of Instant Noodle (Ramyeon) Soup among College Students: Hyung Sook Kim, Eun Young Lee, Kyungmin Kim, Kyung Won Kim, Jinwon Pyun, Sang Jin Chung, Young Hye Kwon, Ikhyun Yeo, Sangyun Lee, Kisun Nam; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(4):365-371. Published online August 31, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.4.365

Abstract PDF

High intakes of sodium may increase the risk of hypertension or cardiovascular diseases. According to the 2010 Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey, the average intake of sodium was 4,878 mg/day with salt, kimchi, soy sauce, fermented soybean paste and Ramyeon being the five main sources of sodium. In order to identify solutions to reduce the intake of sodium, we investigated the intake patterns and eating behaviors of Ramyeon among 347 college students (male 146, female 201) using survey questionnaires. The average age of study subjects was 23.7 years for males and 20.5 years for females. The average Body Mass Index (kg/m2) was 21.9 for males and 20.1 for females. The average frequency of Ramyeon intake was 2.0 times/week. The main reason for eating Ramyeon was convenience (56%), followed by good taste (27%), low price (11%) and other reasons (9%). The criteria for choosing Ramyeon were taste (72%), convenience (14%), price (7%), nutrition (1%), and the other factors (2%). Males' average intake of Ramyeon soup (61%) was higher than that of the females (36%). The estimated intake of Ramyeon soup by survey showed a positive correlation with the measured intake of Ramyeon soup. Sodium contents of Ramyeon were measured separately for the noodles and the soup, which were 1,185 mg/serving and 1,148 mg/serving each. Therefore, the amount of sodium intake can be reduced if students eat less Ramyeon soup. Also, we observed that dietary behaviors and soup intakes of Ramyeon between the sexes were different. Appropriate nutritional education for proper eating habits may help decrease the intake of sodium.

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[English]
Calcium Status and Bone Mineral Density by the Level of Sodium Intake in Young Women: Jin Sook Yoon, Mi Jung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2013;18(2):125-133. Published online April 30, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2013.18.2.125

Abstract PDF

Previous studies have shown that sodium excretion is positively related to calcium excretion in the urine. As excessive sodium intake is a common nutritional problem in Korea, we intended to investigate associations among sodium intake levels and calcium status, evaluated by 24 hour recall method and urinary excretion, and bone status. We collected dietary information for non-consecutive three days from 139 young adult women 19~29 years. After classifying the subjects into 4 groups based on the dietary sodium levels by daily total sodium intake (mg) and sodium density (sodium intake per 1000 kcal energy intake), we compared the bone status, nutrient intakes, urinary calcium and sodium excretions. The results showed a positive association between total daily sodium intake and intake of other nutrients. However, no significant differences in nutrients intakes were observed among subject groups classified by sodium density levels. There were no significant differences of bone density among groups by total daily sodium intake as well as by sodium density. While total daily sodium intake showed significantly positive relationship with urinary sodium (p < 0.05) and calcium (p < 0.05), sodium density was not related to urinary excretion of calcium and sodium. Our results suggested that promoting balanced meals providing appropriate amounts of energy intake is the essential component of nutrition education for improving calcium status of young Korean women with excessive sodium intake.

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[English]
The Effect of Sodium Reduction Education Program of a Public Health Center on the Blood Pressure, Blood Biochemical Profile and Sodium Intake of Hypertensive Adults: Eun Jin Jung, Sook Mee Son, Jong Sook Kwon; Korean J Community Nutr 2012;17(6):752-771. Published online December 31, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2012.17.6.752

Abstract PDF

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of sodium reduction education program of a public health center on the blood pressure, blood biochemical profile and sodium intake of hypertensive adults. The program continued for 16 weeks with an 8-week nutrition education and an 8-week follow-up to forty two subjects, 6 males and 36 females aged 46 to 80 years. Subjects received nutrition education including lectures, activities, cooking classes and nutrition counseling. Physical fitness, management of stress, and nutrition counseling were provided during the follow-up. The program was evaluated three times, before and after the nutrition education, and after the follow-up. Systolic blood pressure (p < 0.0001) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001) were decreased after completion of the program. Body weight (p < 0.005), percent body fat (p < 0.005) and body mass index (p < 0.001) were decreased, too. There were no significant differences in blood glucose, HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides, while elevated levels of total cholesterol (p < 0.001) and LDL-cholesterol (p < 0.001) appeared after the program completion. Decreased intakes of vitamin A (p < 0.05), beta-carotene (p < 0.001) and sodium (p < 0.001) were observed. Consumption frequency of noodles, soups, stews, kimchi, fishes/shellfish, seasoned vegetables, and salted seafoods/pickles (p < 0.05~p < 0.001) were decreased, while that of all food groups were not changed during the follow-up. Total score of nutrition knowledge related to sodium intake and hypertension (p < 0.001), and that of dietary behavior associated with high sodium intakes were changed positively (p < 0.001) only during the nutrition education. This sodium reduction education program, including the follow-up study showed positive effects on the blood pressure, sodium intake, nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior of hypertensive adults.

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A Study on the Sodium and Potassium Intakes and Urinary Excretion of Adults in Busan: Hwa Jae Lim; Korean J Community Nutr 2012;17(6):737-751. Published online December 31, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2012.17.6.737

Abstract PDF

The purpose of this study was to assess sodium and potassium intakes and urinary excretion of adults in Busan and to evaluate the relationship of urinary sodium/potassium excretion (UNa/UK) to the status of anthropometric, blood pressure, urine analysis, and nutrient intake of subjects. Nutrient intake by 24-h recall, 24-h UNa/UK were measured with 87 adults aged 20-59 yrs (42 men and 45 women). The mean intakes of sodium and potassium were 3915.4 mg and 3093.9 mg, respectively. The mean 24-h UNa/UK was 3457.0/1680.4 mg. UNa showed significant positive correlations with sodium intake (p < 0.001, p < 0.001), sodium/potassium ratio (p < 0.001, p < 0.01), UK (p < 0.001, p < 0.001), and UNa/UK ratio (p < 0.05, p < 0.01) in men and women and with age, BMI, systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure in women (p < 0.05, p < 0.05, p < 0.05, p < 0.05). The UK showed significant positive correlations sodium intake (p < 0.001, p < 0.001), UNa (p < 0.001, p < 0.001) in men and women and with sodium density in men (p < 0.001) and with age, intakes of protein and potassium in women (p < 0.01, p < 0.05, p < 0.05). Mean SBP was lowest in the second quartile and highest in the fourth quartile of UNa. Mean UNa in the second, third, and fourth quartiles were 2821.1 mg, 3621.3 mg, and 5456.4 mg, respectively. Mean SBP in the second, third, and fourth quartiles were 115.8 mmHg, 120.7 mmHg, and 125.9 mmHg, respectively. Based on the results, UNa was related to sodium intake, UK, and SBP. We conclude that nutritional education for the reduction of high sodium intake is needed in the general population to prevent and control adverse blood pressure levels.

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Study on the Eating Habits and Practicability of Guidelines for Reducing Sodium Intake according to the Stage of Change in Housewives: So Hyun Ahn, Jong Sook Kwon, Kyungmin Kim, Jin Sook Yoon, Baeg Won Kang, Jong Wook Kim, Seok Heo, Hea Young Cho, Hye Kyeong Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2012;17(6):724-736. Published online December 31, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2012.17.6.724

Abstract PDF

This study was intended to investigate the sodium-related perception, dietary behavior, and practicability of methods for reducing sodium intake(RSI) according to the stage of change in consumers. The survey was conducted to 770 housewives, among them 553 subjects who answered the key questions for the stage of change were categorized into ''aintenance (M)' stage (maintaining reduced salt intake for more than 6 months; n = 287, 51.90%), 'Action (A)' stage (maintaining reduced salt intake for less than 6 months; n=139, 25.14%), and 'Pre-Action (P)'stage (not starting reduced salt intake; n = 127, 22.97%). The subjects in M and A were significantly older than those in P (p < 0.01). The scores of desirable dietary habit and dietary balance were the highest in M followed by A and P. When eating out, the subjects in P considered 'price' more and 'healthiness of food' less than those in M and A did. Among the guidelines for RSI, 'Avoid Processed Foods', 'Eat enough vegetables and fruits' and 'Add little amount of dipping sauce for fried food' were selected as the three easiest items to perform. With regard to the sodium-related perception, the subjects in M considered eating-out food to be more salty than homemade dishes, read nutrition labels more, avoided table salt or dipping sauce for fried food more, and had 'own low-sodium recipe' than those in P (p < 0.001). It is suggested that practicability of actions for RSI and the stage of change should be considered to develop effective personalized education program and nutrition guidance.

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[English]
Measurements of Salinity and Salt Content by Menu Types Served at Industry Foodservice Operations in Daegu: Ji Ae Kim, Yun Hwa Kim, Moon Young Ann, Yeon Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2012;17(5):637-651. Published online October 31, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2012.17.5.637

Abstract PDF

The purpose of this study was to investigate salinity and sodium content in foods served at industry foodservice operations in selected workplaces in Daegu. The researcher collected 1,142 food items categorized into 22 menu item groups from lunch samples served at 100 industry foodservice operations and measured the salinity of the food items, and calculated sodium and salt contents from the salinity. In terms of salt content of one meal at each workplace, 46% of the meals were 3-<5 g, and only 3.0% of them were 1.7 g or less, which is one third of the daily target intake (5 g) presented by the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans. In terms of sodium content, 35.3% of the meals were 1,000-< 1,500 mg (most), and only 2.5% of them were 667 mg or less, which is, again, one third of the daily target intake. As to the salinity of each menu item group, side dishes such as sauces, kimchi, seasoned vegetables, hard-boiled foods, and stir-fried foods were significantly higher, but the sodium content was not higher, because their quantity per serving was small. The salinity of foods with liquid such as stews, noodles, soups, and broths was relatively lower, but the sodium content was higher, because their quantity per serving was large. This indicates that an education program should be developed for foodservice workers who prepare food for the workplace regarding the development and promotion of various menus for reducing sodium content, in order to reduce sodium content in meals served by food service in the workplace.

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[English]
Cost-benefit Analysis of Sodium Intake Reduction Policy in Korea: Chulhee Lee, Dae Il Kim, Jeonglim Hong, Eunmi Koh, Baeg Won Kang, Jong Wook Kim, Hye Kyung Park, Cho Il Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2012;17(3):341-352. Published online June 30, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2012.17.3.341

Abstract PDF

It is well established that excessive sodium intake is related to a higher incidence of chronic diseases such as hypertension, stroke, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease and gastric cancer. Although the upper limit of the current sodium intake guideline by WHO is set at 2,000 mg/day for adults, sodium intake of Koreans is well over 4,700 mg/capita/day implying an urgent need to develop and implement sodium intake reduction policy at the national level. This study investigated the cost-effectiveness of the sodium intake reduction policy, for the first time, in Korea. Analyses were performed using most recent and representative data on national health insurance statistics, healthcare utilization, employment information, disease morbidity/mortality, etc. The socioeconomic benefits of the policy, resulting from reduced morbidity of those relevant diseases, included lower medical expenditures, transportation costs, caregiver cost for inpatients and income losses. The socioeconomic benefits from diminished mortality included reductions in earning losses and welfare losses caused by early deaths. It is estimated that the amount of total benefits of reducing sodium intake from 4.7 g to 3.0 g is 12.6 trillion Korean Won; and the size of its cost is 149 billion Won. Assuming that the effect of sodium intake reduction would become gradually evident over a 5-year period, the implied rate of average return to the sodium reduction policy is 7,790% for the following 25 years, suggesting a very high cost-effectiveness. Accordingly, development and implementation of a mid-to-long term plan for a consistent sodium intake reduction policy is extremely beneficial and well warranted.

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[English]
A Comparison of Salty Taste Assessments and Dietary Attitudes and Dietary Behaviors Associated with High-Salt Diets in Four Regions in Korea: Hyun Hee Kim, Yun Young Jung, Yeon Kyung Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2012;17(1):38-48. Published online February 29, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2012.17.1.38

Abstract PDF

The purpose of this study was to compare regional differences in salty taste assessments, nutrition knowledge, dietary attitudes and dietary behaviors associated with high-salt diets in four national regions in Korea (Region 1: Seoul, Sokcho, Region 2: Buyeo, Jecheon, Gong Ju, Region 3: Daegu, Gyeongsan, Region 4: Jeon Ju). Subjects were 860 persons who participated in sodium reduction campaign. The result of the salty taste assessment by region was not significantly different. The nutrition knowledge score of subjects in Region 1 was the highest. Dietary attitude scores that showed preference for high-salt diets of Region 2 and Region 4 subjects were higher than those of Regions 1 and 3 subjects (p < 0.001). Dietary behavior scores were not significantly different among regions. The correlation between sodium intake and salty taste assessment was significant (p < 0.01). Older subjects who had high blood pressure levels and lower nutrition knowledge were more likely to have high sodium intakes. Even though the salty taste assessment and dietary behavior scores by region were not significantly different, the salty taste assessment scores had a significant negative correlation with nutrition knowledge and had a significant positive correlation with dietary attitude and dietary behavior in terms of preference for high-salt diets. Therefore, nationwide education regarding salt intake reduction and health and a campaign to encourage favorable attitudes and behavioral changes regarding consumption of a no-salt / low-salt diet is needed.

Citations

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Estimation model for habitual 24-hour urinary-sodium excretion using simple questionnaires from normotensive Koreans
Ji-Sook Kong, Yeon-Kyung Lee, Mi Kyung Kim, Mi-Kyeong Choi, Young-Ran Heo, Taisun Hyun, Sun Mee Kim, Eun-Soon Lyu, Se-Young Oh, Hae-Ryun Park, Moo-Yong Rhee, Hee-Kyong Ro, Mi Kyung Song, Tatsuo Shimosawa
PLOS ONE.2018; 13(2): e0192588. CrossRef
Correlations Among Threshold and Assessment for Salty Taste and High-salt Dietary Behavior by Age
Lin Jiang, Yun-Young Jung, Yeon-Kyung Lee
Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2016; 21(1): 75. CrossRef
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Mi Jeung Im, Dong Sook Cho
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Journal of Nutrition and Health.2016; 49(1): 36. CrossRef
Salt-Related Dietary Attitudes, Behaviors, and Nutrition Knowledge of University Students according to Estimated Salt Intake Using Urinary Salt Signal
Mi-Hyun Kim, Daun Min, Eungyoung Jang, Jee-Young Yeon, Jong Wook Kim, Yun-Jung Bae
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A Study on Sodium-related Dietary Attitude and Behaviors According to Sodium-related Nutrition Knowledge of University Students
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Korean Journal of Community Nutrition.2012; 17(5): 637. CrossRef

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[English]
Major Sources of Sodium Intake of the Korean Population at Prepared Dish Level: Based on the KNHANES 2008 & 2009: Miyong Yon, Yoonna Lee, Dohee Kim, Jeeyeon Lee, Eunmi Koh, Eunjeong Nam, Hyehyung Shin, Baeg won Kang, Jong Wook Kim, Seok Heo, Hea young Cho, Cho il Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2011;16(4):473-487. Published online August 31, 2011; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2011.16.4.473

Abstract PDF

We attempted to define the sources of sodium intake for the Korean population at prepared dish level to provide a basis for developing sustainable nutrition policies and feasible programs for sodium intake reduction. Dietary intake data from 2008 and 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used in the analysis for sodium intake sources. Sodium intake from individual dish consumed by each subject was calculated and used in delineating major sodium sources at dish and dish group level for sub-populations of different sex and age. Also, sodium intake was compared between eaters and non-eaters of some specific dish groups with considerable contribution to total sodium intake. The number of subjects included in the analysis was 18,022 and mean sodium intake was 4,600 mg/capita/day. Major sources of sodium intake at dish group level were in the following order: kimchi (1125 mg, 24.5%), noodles (572 mg, 12.4%), soups (488 mg, 10.6%), stews (399 mg, 8.7%), and cooked rice (284 mg, 6.2%). The magnitude of contribution to total sodium intake by soups and stews was different by age group. Sodium intake difference between eaters and non-eaters was much larger for kimchi group (2,343 mg for male, 1,452 mg for female) than for soups or stews. Interaction between consumption of aforementioned specific dish groups and age was highly significant (p < 0.0005) for both sexes. This study revealed an importance of having not only the control over sodium content of foods/dishes, but also the customized approach for different groups of population to accomplish an appreciable reduction in sodium intake.

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[English]
A Study on the Calcium and Sodium Intakes and Urinary Calcium Excretion of Adults in Busan: Hwa Jae Lim; Korean J Community Nutr 2011;16(2):215-226. Published online April 30, 2011; DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2011.16.2.215

Abstract PDF

The purpose of this study was to assess calcium and sodium intakes and urinary excretion of adults in Busan and to evaluate the relationship between urinary calcium excretion (UCa) and the status of anthropometric, blood pressure, urine analysis, and nutrient intake of subjects. Nutrient intake by 24 hr recall, 24 hr urinary calcium and sodium excretion (UNa) were measured with 87 adults aged 20-59 yrs (42 men and 45 women). The mean calcium intake was 88.0% for men and 103.0% for women of Recommended Intake. The mean sodium intake was 283.4% for men and 250.5% for women of Adequate Intake (AI). The mean 24hr UCa was 127.4 mg in men and 107.3 mg in women. The mean 24 hr UNa was 3650.6mg in men and 3276.4mg in women. The intake and urinary excretion of calcium and sodium were not significantly different by gender. UCa showed significantly positive correlations with sodium intake and UNa in men (p < 0.001, p < 0.05) and women (p < 0.001, p < 0.001) and with age, systolic blood pressure (SBP) and sodium density in women (p < 0.05, p < 0.05, p < 0.01). The UCa/creatinine showed significantly positive correlations with age, sodium intake, sodium density, and UNa in women (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.01, p < 0.01). When UCa was stratified into quartile (Q1-Q4), age, SBP, UCa, UNa, sodium intake, and AI percentage of sodium (p < 0.01, p < 0.05, p < 0.001, p < 0.001, p < 0.001, p < 0.001) were significantly higher in Q4. The mean intake and AI percentage of sodium in Q4 were 4768.8mg and 329.0. Based on the results, UCa was related to age, SBP, UNa, and sodium intake. Therefore, nutritional education of decreasing sodium intake for decreasing UCa is needed.

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[English]
Dishes Contributing to Sodium Intake of Elderly Living in Rural Areas: Hyun Kyung Moon, Soon Ok Choi, Jung Eun Kim; Korean J Community Nutr 2009;14(1):123-136. Published online February 28, 2009

Abstract PDF: Sodium is a necessary element for the body. Excessive intake of sodium is known as one of the risk factors for chronic diseases. Recently, increasing numbers of people in Korea are suffering from chronic diseases. Major causes of deaths were chronic degenerative disease with the rising aging population. Especially, the population of rural areas is growing older fast. In rural areas, it is known that under nutrition and high sodium intake were major nutritional problems. For sodium intake, there were some studies about contributing food items. They were not enough to show diets relate to sodium intakes. Thus, this study analyzed dishes contributing to sodium intakes of elderly living in rural areas. Dietary intakes using "the 24hour recall method" were used. For the analysis for sodium intakes, "Can-pro3.0" was used. Ranking of dishes by contributions of sodium intakes were Korean cabbage, kimchi (19.6%), seasoned soybean paste (5.3%), soybean paste (4.6%), soybean paste soup dried radish leaves (3.5%), hot pork and kimchi stew (3.4%) in order. Ranking of dish groups by sodium intakes was kimchies (28.3%), soup and hot soups (22.8%), stews and casseroles (9.7%), seasonings (8.2%),and seasoned vegetables (6.0%) in order. One-dish meals among cooked rice, wheat noodles among noodle and mandu, soups using the soybean paste, stews using soybean paste and kimchi, salted fish among grilled foods, stir-fried anchovy among stir-fried foods, seasoned spinach, and Korean cabbage kimchi contributed to sodium intakes. As the nutrition deficiency of the elderly living in rural areas could be a problem, and excessive sodium intakes is threatening to their health, it is needed for the senior citizens to have adequate knowledge for diets containing less sodium. And recipes for healthy food and nutrition education based on their diets are needed.

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[English]
The Effects of a Nutrition Education Program for Hypertensive Female Elderly at the Public Health Center: Kyeong Sook Yim; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(5):640-652. Published online October 31, 2008

Abstract PDF: Hypertension is among the most common and important risk factors for stroke, heart attack, and heart failure which is considered to be the leading cause of death in Korea. The prevalence rate of hypertension in Korea is 27.9%, according to the 2006 Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey. Since non-pharmacologic nutrition education is recommended as the first step in the management of hypertension, evaluation of nutrition program is needed to form strategies for improving patients' dietary adherence. This study was designed to evaluate the overall effectiveness of a hypertension nutrition education program (HNEP) for reducing the salt intake, at a public health center located in Gyunggi-province. The HNEP was offered for 16 weeks from May to September in 2007. Nutrition education activities included cooking classes, food preparation demonstrations, physical fitness programs, salty taste preference test sessions, games, case-study presentations, planning and evaluation of menus, etc. Forty patients participated fully in the program which had 47 female enrollees. Data about nutrient intake (24-hour recall), nutrition knowledge, food behavior were collected before (baseline) and after the program. Changes after program completion indicated the following: 1) diastolic blood pressure was decreased (p < 0.05), 2) sodium (salt) intake was also decreased (p < 0.01), especially baseline high salt intake group, 3) nutrition knowledge was improved (p<0.001), 4) dietary behaviors for maintaining a low salt diet was improved (p < 0.001), 5) participants preferred cooking class from nutrition education methods. As a conclusion, it appears that a nutrition education program for hypertensive female elderly for reducing the salt intake might effectively decrease blood pressure and salt intake. It also improves nutrition knowledge, dietary behavior, and finally adherence to a recommendable low-sodium diet.

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[English]
Comparison of Dietary Behaviors Related to Sodium Intake by Gender and Age: Young Sook Park, Sook Mee Son, Wha Jae Lim, Sook Bae Kim, Yeon Sun Chung; Korean J Community Nutr 2008;13(1):1-12. Published online February 29, 2008

Abstract PDF: This study was performed to understand recognition and behaviors related to sodium intake of Korean adults. The data were collected from subjects including 267 male and 285 female adults in nationwide and compared by gender and by age. We found that the male group showed significantly higher smoking, alcohol drinking, and exercise does the female group. The older group (40 to 59 years) revealed significantly higher exercise and lower alcohol drinking; however general disease and hypertension prevalence, diet therapy practice, and meditation for hypertension were higher. Recognizing sodium levels of foods containing high-sodium, and sodium-nutriture labels when purchasing foods, and knowing differences between salt and sodium of the male group or recognizing sodium levels of foods containing high-sodium of the older group was worse than the other. Among the 32 food behaviors, only 12 were identified as significantly correlated to sodium intake levels including behaviors of preferring Chinese and Japanese foods to Western foods, preferring kimchi to raw vegetables, completely consuming soup, stew, noodle liquid, liking of dried fish and salted mackerel, frequent eat-outs or delivered foods, and so forth. There were significant differences between gender or age groups in terms of sodium intake-increasing behaviors; the male group showed higher behaviors of preferring salty taste and eating all broths. And the older group revealed higher behavior of adding table salt as well as the previous two, however, the younger group showed more behaviors of eat-outs or delivered foods and not the liquid of kimchi.

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[English]
Sodium Intakes of Korean Adults with 24-hour Urine Analysis and Dish Frequency Questionnaire and Comparison of Sodium Intakes According to the Regional Area and Dish Group: Sook Mee Son, Young Sook Park, Hwa Jae Lim, Sook Bae Kim, Yeon Seon Jeong; Korean J Community Nutr 2007;12(5):545-558. Published online October 31, 2007

Abstract PDF: This study was performed to assess the sodium intakes of Korean adults using a 24-hr urine analysis and dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) according to each dish group and the regional area. The subjects of this study were comprised of 552 adults (male: 267, female: 285), aged 20-59yr residing in the metropolitan area (N = 200), Chungcheng-Do (N = 117), Jeolla-Do (N = 117), and Gueongsang-Do provinces (N = 118). The subjects were recruited from the residents who once participated or are participating in the various health programs offered by the public health center. The number of subjects who completed the 24-hr urine collection was 205 (male : 110, female : 95).The mean age and BMI of the subjects were 39.0+/-11.7 y and 23.1+/-2.9 kg/m2, respectively. The mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure was 119.5+/-15.4 mmHg, and 77.1+/-11.1 mmHg, respectively. Eighteen percent of the subjects responded that they are currently smoking, 36% drinking and 50.4% exercising. Twenty point six percent of the subjects were assessed as having hypertension according to their systolic or diastolic blood pressure(SBP > or = 140 mmHg or DBP > or = 90 mmHg) measurements in the present study. Salt intake of the subject estimated with 24-hr sodium excretion was 12.7 g/d (male : 13.4 g/d, female : 12.1 g/d) based on the sodium excretion rate as 82%. Salt intake estimated with DFQ was 14.7 g/d (male : 16.2 g/d, female : 13.4 g/d), 2 g more than the salt intake estimated with 24-hr urine analysis. The four dish groups that contributed most to the sodium intake in order were kimchi (I1571.4mg), soup and stew (1260.5 mg), fish and shellfish (706.3 mg) and noodle and ramyeon (644.3mg). Salt intake estimated with DFQ was the highest in the subjects of Gueongsang-Do (17.0 g/d), second highest Chungcheong-Do (16.4 g/d) and the lowest in the metropolitan area (13.0 g/d). Subjects of Gueongsang-Do showed the highest sodium intakes in most of the dish group, whereas subjects of the metropolitan area showed the lowest. Residents of Chuncheong-Do revealed the highest sodium intake with kimchi and ofJeolla-Do the higher sodium intake with the main dish (meat, fish and beans). The highest salt percentage of kimchi (3.0+/-0.8%) and soybean paste (14.5 +/-5.1%) were observed in Gueongsang-Do, whereas individuals of the metropolitan area were observed as having kimchi (1.6 +/-0.5%) and soybean paste (7.4 +/-1.6%) with the lowest salt percentage. Men were observed as having more salty kimchi (2.4 +/-0.1%) than women (2.1 +/-0.1%).

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[English]
Dietary Risk Factors Associated with Hypertension in Patients: Sook Mee Son, Gwui Yeop Huh; Korean J Community Nutr 2006;11(5):661-672. Published online October 31, 2006

Abstract PDF: This study was performed to determine the dietary risk factors associated with hypertension. The hypertensive group were composed of 112 hypertensive patients (male 53, female 59) who first visited the hypertension clinic and had been diagnosed as having primary hypertension (SBP > or = 140 mmHg or DBP > or = 90 mmHg). The regular visitors or the subjects on special diets or medical therapies were excluded. The normal group consisted of as subjects (male 41, female 54) matched with age and socioeconomic levels. The subjects having higher intakes (above the 75 percentile) in energy, protein, iron, vitamin A or C showed significantly higher hypertension risk estimated with odds ratio after the covariance factors (age, sex and BMI) were adjusted. More than 2400 mg of sodium (6 g of salt) intake was associated with significantly higher risk of hypertension (odds ratio: 1.773, CI: 1.014 - 3.014 for SBP > or = 140 mmHg; odds ratio: 2.373, CI: 1.359 - 4.215 for DBP > or = 90 mmHg). Hypertensive group showed significantly increased intakes of vegetables and fish and shell fish compared to the normal group. When the vegetable intakes were classified into Kimchi, fresh vegetables and cooked vegetables with seasoning, the hypertensive group was observed as having higher intakes of Kimchi and cooked vegetables with seasoning. The intakes of highest quartile for vegetables (> or = 327 g/day)(odds ratio: 3.164, CI: 1.740 - 5.752), fish and their products (> or = 102 g/day)(odds ratio: 2.756, CI: 1.486 - 5.109), grains(> or = 311 g/day)(odds ratio 2.393, CI: 1.186 - 4.832), meats and their product (> or = 106 g)(odds ratio: 2.210, CI: 1.225 - 3.987) compared to the lower were significantly associated with the higher risk of hypertension estimated with DBP (> or = 90 mmHg) after covariance factors were adjusted. In conclusion, our findings confirm that higher intake of energy or sodium are associated with the increased risk of hypertension. Because increased intake of vegetable or fish was associated with the higher risk of hypertension, in contrast with the finding of western countries, choosing or preparation of vegetables or fish with reduced salt is recommended.

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Validation Studies

[English]
Development and Evaluation of Validity of Dish Frequency Questionnaire (DFQ) and Short DFQ Using Na Index for Estimation of Habitual Sodium Intake: Sook Mee Son, Gwui Yeop Huh, Hong Sup Lee; Korean J Community Nutr 2005;10(5):677-692. Published online October 31, 2005

Abstract PDF: The assessment of sodium intake is complex because of the variety and nature of dietary sodium. This study intended to develop a dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) for estimating the habitual sodium intake and a short DFQ for screening subjects with high or low sodium intake. For DFQ112, one hundred and twelve dish items were selected based on the information of sodium content of the one serving size and consumption frequency. Frequency of consumption was determined through nine categories ranging from more than 3 times a day to almost never to indicate how often the specified amount of each food item was consumed during the past 6 months. One hundred seventy one adults (male: 78, female: 93) who visited hypertension or health examination clinic participated in the validation study. DFQ55 was developed from DFQ112 by omitting the food items not frequently consumed, selecting the dish items that showed higher sodium content per one portion size and higher consumption frequency. To develop a short DFQs for classifying subjects with low or high sodium intakes, the weighed score according to the sodium content of one protion size was given to each dish item of DFQ25 or DFQ14 and multiplied with the consumption frequency score. A sum index of all the dish items was formed and called sodium index (Na index). For validation study the DFQ112, 2-day diet record and one 24-hour urine collection were analyzed to estimate sodium intakes. The sodium intakes estimated with DFQ112 and 24-h urine analysis showed 65% agreement to be classified into the same quartile and showed significant correlation (r = 0.563 p < 0.05). However, the actual amount of sodium intake estimated with DFQ112 (male: 6221.9 mg, female: 6127.6 mg) showed substantial difference with that of 24-h urine analysis (male: 4556.9 mg, female: 5107.4 mg). The sodium intake estimated with DFQ55 (male: 4848.5 mg, female: 4884.3 mg) showed small difference from that estimated with 24-h urine analysis, higher proportion to be classfied into the same quartile and higher correlation with the sodium intakes estimated with 24-h urine analysis and systolic blood pressure. It seems DFQ55 can be used as a tool for quantitative estimation of sodium intake. Na index25 or Na index14 showed 39~50% agreement to be classified into the same quartile, substantial correlations with the sodium intake estimated with DFQ55 and significant correlations with the sodium intake estimated with 24-h urine analysis. When point 119 for Na index25 was used as a criterion of low sodium intake, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value was 62.5%, 81.8% and 53.2%, respectively. When point 102 for Na index14 was used as a criterion of high sodium intake, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value were 73.8%, 84.0%, 62.0%, respectively. It seems the short DFQs using Na index14 or Na index25 are simple, easy and proper instruments to classify the low or high sodium intake group.

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Original Articles

[English]
Housewives' Perception of Flavor Enhancer Products in Inchon: Kyung Ja Chang, Won Cha; Korean J Community Nutr 2000;5(4):683-696. Published online December 31, 2000

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to investigate the perception and use of flavor enhancer products. This study was carried out through questionnaire and the subjects were 503 housewives in Inchon. The results are summarized as follows. As for age, 51.9% of the subjects were 40 years or older. Also, 60.0% of the subjects had received a high school education. As for occupation, full-time housewives accounted for 63.7%. Monthly household income of most subjects were 1 million won or more, and monthly food expenses of most subjects were 300 thousand won or more. Also 71.0% of subjects lived in apartments. As for taste of flavor enhancer products, 58.3% of subjects perceived that it was mediocre, 31.3% said good, 6.2% said bad, and 1.8% said very bad. Most subjects perceived that the convenience of flavor enhancer products was good and there was a significant difference among the groups divided by education level. As for economy of flavor enhancer products, there were significant differences among groups divided by household income and food expenses. Most subjects perceived that the safety of flavor enhancer products was not good. Most subjects considered the date of manufacture, manufacturers, food additives, packaging and price when they purchased flavor enhancer products. Also, 70.0% of subjects were going to reduce the amount of flavor enhancer products they use in the future. Most subjects needed flavor enhancer products good for health. Therefore, it may be necessary to develop and to produce safe, nutritious, tasty, cheap and various flavor enhancer products.

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[English]
A Study on Sodium and Potassium Balance of College Women in Seoul: Young Keun Lee, Chung Ja Sung, Mi Kyeong Choi; Korean J Community Nutr 1999;4(3):375-381. Published online September 30, 1999

Abstract PDF: The purpose of this study was to investigate Na and K balances in healthy adult women. Anthropometric assessments, biochemical analysis of blood, 3-day dietary flood records and collections of 3-day food, 24-hr urine and faces were performed to evaluate intakes and excretions of Na and K in 20 college women living in Seoul. The mean BMI and blood pressure of the subjects were 21.08 and 110.25/67.50mmHg, respectively. Mean daily intake of energy was 1578.84 kcal, 79% of Korean RDA. Also, daily intakes of Na and K ware 120.86mEq and 44.20mEq. The urinary and fecal excretions of Na were 99.88 and 4.45mEq/day, and those of K were 30.41 and 8.66mEq/day, respectively. The body retention, retention rate, and apparent absorption of Na were 17.11mEq, 13.23%, and 96.31%, and those of K were 5.82mEq, 8.69%, and 80.12%, respectively. The urinary and fecal Na/K ratio were 3.48 and 0.52. There were significantly positive correlations between 1) urinary Na, K excretions and intakes of Na or K, 2) urinary K and BMI, 3) serum K and serum globulin, and 4) urinary Na excretion and serum haptoglobin level, respectively. The results of this study show that Na intake was higher and K intake was lower than those of other advanced nations. Therefore, nutrition education show instruct people to reduce Na intake and to increase K intake.

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